The Moon, by Oliver C. Farrington—A Project Gutenberg eBook

Except for occasional comets and meteors, the Moon is the celestial body nearest the Earth. Its mean distance from the Earth is 237,640 miles, but as it moves in an elliptical orbit, it has at one point a remoteness of 253,263 miles and opposite to this one of 221,436 miles. The diameter of the Moon is about one-fourth that of the Earth, or 2,160 miles, and its volume is ¹/₄₉ that of the Earth. The mass of the Moon (volume multiplied by density) is ¹/₈₁ and the density ⅗ that of the Earth. The period of the Moon's revolution about the Earth is 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes and 11½ seconds. As its period of rotation on its axis is the same, only one side of the Moon is ever seen from the Earth. Since, however, the Moon's axis is inclined about 83° to the plane of its orbit, we sometimes see a little distance beyond each of its poles, and, since the rate of motion of the Moon in its orbit varies slightly, we sometimes see a little beyond the eastern and western edges of the hemisphere. The total result of these librations, as they are called, is to make four-sevenths of the Moon's surface visible to us. Of the remaining three-sevenths, nothing is known. So far as is known, the Moon is not flattened at the poles.

Owing to its slow rotation on its axis, the Moon's day has a length of 29½ of our days. Each portion of its surface is therefore exposed to or shielded from the light of the Sun for a fortnight continuously.

The Moon has no atmosphere. Hence, it can have no diffused light, and nothing can be seen on it except where the Sun's rays shine directly. "If a man stepped into the shadow of a lunar crag," says Todd, "he would instantly become invisible. For a similar reason, no sound, however loud, can be heard on the Moon. The rolling of a rock down the wall of a lunar crater, will be known only by the tremor it produces." Moreover, changes of temperature on the Moon are rapid and violent. Where the Sun's rays strike, a temperature about that of boiling water is believed to be reached, while in unilluminated portions it is thought to go as low as 100° below zero.

The force of gravity upon the surface of the Moon is only ⅙ of that on the Earth. Therefore, a man weighing 150 pounds on the Earth, would weigh only 25 pounds on the Moon, and the same muscular energy by which he could jump 6 feet on the Earth would carry him a distance of 36 feet on the Moon. On the Earth a body falls 16 feet in one second; on the Moon only 2.6 feet in the same time.

The surface of the Moon is made up of mountains, valleys and plains, resembling in general appearance those of the Earth. As a whole, however, the surface of the Moon is much more uneven than that of the Earth. Some of the mountains of the Moon have a height of over 20,000 feet. As there is no sea-level to measure from, this figure expresses height above the surrounding surface, it being determined by the length of the shadows cast by the mountains.

In order to represent in a vivid and accurate manner the character and appearance of the Moon's surface, the construction of a large model of the Moon was undertaken a number of years ago by Th. Dickert, Curator of the Natural History Museum of Bonn, Germany and Dr. J. F. Julius Schmidt, Director of the Observatory of Athens, Greece and an eminent selenographer. - 3 - The model was presented to the Museum by the late Lewis Reese of Chicago, and is installed at the west end of Hall 35 of the Museum. The model is 19.2 feet in diameter, and is by far the largest and most elaborate representation of the Moon's surface ever made. Its horizontal scale is 1:600,000, one inch on the model equaling 9⁴⁷/₁₀₀ miles on the surface of the Moon, and its vertical scale is 1:200,000, one inch equaling 3¹⁵/₁₀₀ miles on the Moon.

Some characteristic features of the Moon's surface which are especially well illustrated on the model are the following:

1. GRAY PLAINS or "SEAS." These are the darker portions of the Moon's surface as it is seen with the naked eye. They were thought by earlier observers to be seas and were so named. We now know, however, that there is no water on the Moon's surface and that the so-called "seas" are really low-land plains, some of them of vast extent. The Oceanus Procellarum, for instance, covers an area of 90,000 square miles. As seen from the Earth, the plains show a gray-green color, often of varying intensity and sometimes a little bluish in portions. The brightest green color is shown by the area known as Mare Serenitatis. Though appearing perfectly level, a close study shows that these plains have undulating surfaces. They occupy about one-third of the visible surface of the Moon.

2. MOUNTAINS and HIGHLANDS. These constitute the bright portions of the Moon's surface as it is seen with the naked eye.

Although these elevated areas are conveniently called mountains, Shaler has drawn attention to the fact that they are unlike those on the Earth since - 4 - they lack features due to erosion and there is absence of order in their association. The average declivity of their slopes is also much greater than that of the mountains on the Earth. It has been estimated that the average angle of the lunar surface to its horizon is 52°, while on the Earth it does not amount to more than one-tenth of that figure. This difference is probably due to the lack of water on the Moon, the work of which on the Earth tends continually to reduce slopes to a level. Using the term mountains for convenience, however, those on the Moon may be divided into the following classes:

a. Mountain Chains. These may have a length of 80 to 100 miles and heights of from 5,000 to 17,000 feet. As in the case with the mountains of the Earth, they are usually steeper on one side than on the other. The range called the Appenines, seen near the north pole of the Moon, is a good illustration of such mountain chains. Other ranges are the so-called Alps and Caucasus. These names were applied by Hevelius, an astronomer of Danzig, who made the first map of the Moon in 1647. He gave to the features of the Moon's surface names of localities similar to those on the Earth which they most resembled. His system was largely abandoned by later astronomers, however, the later method being to name the different features of the Moon after celebrated astronomers and philosophers.

b. Highlands Surrounded By Mountains. These are partly with and partly without well-determined directions.

c. Isolated Mountains. These usually occur on the gray plains. They vary from 4,000 to 7,000 feet in height.

d. Vein Mountains. These occur only on the gray plains. They are long, narrow, contorted ridges, usually from 700 to 1,000 feet in height.

e. Circular Mountains. These are the most characteristic and peculiar features of the Moon's surface. They vary in size from the so-called "Walled Plains," 150 to 15 miles in diameter, to crater mountains whose diameters range from 15 miles down to a few hundred feet. Thirty-three thousand of these crater mountains have been counted by one astronomer, the number increasing as the size diminishes.

The form of these craters is that of pits, which generally have ring-like walls about them. These wails slope very steeply to a central cavity and more gently toward the surrounding country. In all these pits, as pointed out by Shaler, except those of the smallest size, and possibly in these, also, there is, within the ring wall and at a considerable though variable depth below its summit, a nearly flat floor, which often has a central pit of small size or, in its place, a steep cone. When this floor is more than 20 miles in diameter, and in increasing numbers as it is wider, there are generally other pits and cones irregularly scattered upon it. Thus, within the ring called Plato, which is about 60 miles in diameter, there are some scores of these lesser pits. On the interior of the ring walls of the pits over 10 miles in diameter, there are usually more or less distinct terraces, which suggest that the material now forming the solid floors they inclose was once fluid and stood at greater heights in the pit than that at which it became permanently frozen. It is, indeed, tolerably certain that the last movement of this material of the floors was one of interrupted subsidence from an originally greater elevation on the outside of the ring wall. The ring wall is commonly of irregular height, with many peaks. - 6 - In some places there may be seen tongues or protrusions of the substance which forms the ring, as if it had flowed a short distance and then had cooled with steep slopes. It may also be noted: (a) that the pits or craters in many instances intersect each other, showing that they were not all formed at the same time, but in succession; (b) that the larger of them are not found on the plains (seas) but on the upland and apparently the older parts of the surface; and (c) that the evidence from the intersections clearly indicates that the larger of these structures are prevailingly the older and that in general the smallest were the latest formed. In other words, says Shaler, whatever was the nature of the action involved in the production of the craters, its energy diminished with time, until in the end it could no longer break the crust. These features indicate that the surface of the Moon has been subject to forces similar to those which produce volcanoes on the Earth, and it is therefore customary to refer to the crater-like mountains of the Moon as volcanoes. As the parallel cannot be drawn too closely, however, Shaler has urged that the term vulcanoids, meaning volcano-like, be applied to these mountains.

3. RILLS or CLEFTS. These are small, deep, ditch-like furrows to be found over various parts of the Moon's surface. Their course seems quite independent of the surface topography, for they traverse mountains and plains with equal facility. They are without doubt the latest formation on the Moon and some of them may have had their origin in modern times.

4. BRIGHT STREAKS. These radiate prominently from many of the great craters of the Moon. They are streaks of narrow width but sometimes nearly a hundred miles in length. They are perhaps - 7 - the most puzzling of all the Moon's features. They have been supposed by some observers to represent lava flows whose surface reflected light more brilliantly than other portions of the Moon. It is more generally believed, however, that the streaks do not represent any independent elevations, since they run over the highest mountains as well as through the deepest craters without variation.

The condition of the Moon's surface as a whole indicates that it has been a theater of extraordinary volcanic activity. In size and number its vulcanoids far exceed the volcanoes of the Earth. The largest terrestrial crater known is that of Kilauea in the Hawaiian Islands which is 2½ miles in diameter. Several craters of the Moon, however, exceed 50 miles in diameter and one measures 114¼ miles. While the absolute heights of the mountains of the Moon do not greatly exceed those of the Earth, proportionally they are much higher, since the Moon's diameter is only one-fourth that of the Earth. The vulcanoids of the Moon differ in other respects from the volcanoes of our globe. "On the Earth they are usually openings on the summits or sides of mountains—on the Moon, depressions below the adjacent surface even when it is a plain or valley; on the Earth the mass of the cone usually far exceeds the capacity of the crater — on the Moon they are much nearer equality; on the Earth they are commonly the sources of long lava streams—on the Moon, traces of such outpourings are rare." (Webb.)

Copernicus. 147. This may deservedly be considered one of the grandest and most instructive of lunar craters. Though its diameter (46 miles) is exceeded by that of other craters, its situation near the center of the lunar disc renders it so conspicuous as to make it a favorite object for observation. Its vast rampart rises to upwards of 12,000 feet above the level of the plateau, nearly in the center of which stands a magnificent group of cones attaining the height of upwards of 2400 feet. The rampart is divided by concentric segmented terraced ridges, which present every appearance of being enormous landslips, resulting from the crushing of their overloaded summits which have slid down in vast segments and scattered their debris on the plateau. Corresponding vacancies in the rampart may be observed from whence these prodigious masses have broken away. The same may be noticed, to a somewhat modified degree, around the exterior of the rampart. For upwards of 70 miles around Copernicus myriads of comparatively minute but perfectly formed craters can be seen. The district on the southeast side is especially rich in them. Many somewhat radial ridges or spurs may be observed leading away from the exterior banks of the great rampart. They appear to be due to the freer egress which the extruded matter found near the focus of disruption.

Triesnecker. 150. A fine example of a normal lunar volcanic crater having all the usual characteristic features in great perfection. Its diameter is about 20 miles and it possesses a good example of the central cone and also of interior terracing. The most notable feature, however, is the remarkable display of cracks or chasms which may be seen to the west side of it. Several of these cracks obviously diverge from near the west external bank of the great crater and they sub-divide or branch out as they extend - 9 - from the apparent point of divergence, while they are crossed or intersected by others. These cracks or chasms are nearly one mile wide at their widest part and after extending for fully 100 miles taper away till they become invisible.

Theophilus. 97. Cyrillus. 96. Catharina. 95. These three magnificent craters form a conspicuous group. Their diameters and depths are as follows: Theophilus, diameter, 64 miles; depth of interior plateau from summit of crater wall, 16,000 feet; central cone, 5200 feet high; Cyrillus, diameter, 60 miles; depth of interior plateau from summit of crater wall, 15,000 feet; central cone, 5800 feet high; Catharina, diameter, 65 miles; depth of interior plateau from summit of crater wall, 13,000 feet; center of plateau occupied by a confused group of minor craters and debris. Each of these craters is full of interesting details presenting in every variety the characteristic features of the lunar volcanoes and giving unmistakable evidence of the tremendous energy which at some remote period piled up such gigantic formations. The intrusion of Theophilus within Cyrillus shows that it is of more recent formation than the latter. The flanks of Theophilus, especially on the west side, are studded with apparently minute craters. These would be considered of great size but for the enormous crater so near.

Ptolemy. 111. Alphons. 110. Arzachael. 84. The portion of the moon's surface which includes these features, being near the center of the lunar disc, is exceptionally well placed for observation. Within this area may be seen every variety of volcanic craters and a number of other interesting forms. Ptolemy belongs to the class of walled plains, its ramparts enclosing a plain 86 miles in diameter. Alphons and - 10 - Arzachael are respectively 60 and 55 miles in diameter. They have all the distinctive features of lunar craters, viz:—central cones, lofty, ragged ramparts, manifestations of landslip formations in the great segmental terraces within their ramparts and minor craters interpolated within their plateaus. A notable object near Alphons is an enormous straight cliff traversing the diameter of a low, ridged, circular formation. This great cliff is 60 miles long and from 1000 to 2000 feet high. It is a well known object to lunar observers and has been termed "The Railway" on account of its straightness. The existence of this remarkable cliff appears to be due either to an upheaval or a down-sinking of a portion of the surface of the circular area across whose diameter it extends.

Tycho. 80. This magnificent crater is 54 miles in diameter and upwards of 16,000 feet deep from the highest ridge of the rampart to the surface of the plateau. It is one of the most conspicuous of lunar craters, not so much on account of its dimensions as from its occupying the great focus of disruption from whence diverge those remarkable bright streaks many of which may be traced over 1000 miles of the moon's surface. The interior of the crater presents striking examples of the concentric, terrace-like formations that are regarded as formed by landslips.

Wargentin. 26. Schickard. 28. Wargentin is an object quite unique of its kind—a crater about 52 miles across, that to all appearance has been filled to the brim with lava that has been left to consolidate. There are evidences of the remains of a rampart, especially on the southwest portion of the rim. The general aspect of Wargentin has been compared to that of a "thin cheese." The terraced and rutted exterior of the rampart has all the details of a - 11 - true crater. The surface of the high plateau is marked by a few ridges branching from a point nearly in the center.

Schickard is one of the finest examples of a walled plain. It is 153 miles in diameter. Within its rampart are 16 smaller craters and without, numberless others.

The following are the names of topographic features of the Moon which can be located by the corresponding numbers on the accompanying chart.

A number of textbooks and popular works on astronomy deal more or less fully with the Moon. Among them the following may be mentioned.

Nasmyth, James and Carpenter, James—The Moon. John Murray, London. 1885. 213 pp. 25 "Woodburytype" plates and several text figures.

Pickering, William H.—The Moon. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York. 1903. Quarto. 103 pp. and many full-sized plates.

Proctor, Richard A.—The Moon. Longmans, Green & Co., London. 1898. 314 pp.

Gilbert, Grove K.—The Moon's Face. Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington, 1892-93. Vol. 12, pp. 241-292.

Shaler, Nathaniel S.—A Comparison of the Features of the Earth and the Moon. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. 1907. Vol. 34, pp. 1-79. 25 plates.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MOON ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.”
• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ works.
• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work.
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.

No. 1.	Model of an Arizona Gold Mine	$ .10
No. 2.	Models of Blast Furnaces for Smelting Iron	.10
No. 3.	Amber—Its Physical Properties and Geological Occurrence	.10
No. 4.	Meteorites	.10
No. 5.	Soils	.10
No. 6.	The Moon	.10

The Moon	1
General Observations.	7
Description of Individual Features.	7
Sources of Additional Information About the Moon.	13

The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Moon

THE MOON

OLIVER C. FARRINGTON

THE MOON

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUAL FEATURES.

SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE MOON

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE