A

SYSTEM OF PYROTECHNY,

To the Corps of Cadets, of the United States' Military Academy, West Point;

Gentlemen,

To you, a scientific and distinguished Corps, this work on Pyrotechny is respectfully dedicated. Your liberal subscription first encouraged me to undertake its publication; for which, accept my grateful thanks.

CLARA F. CUTBUSH.

ADVERTISEMENT.

In submitting the present work to the public, it may be proper to state some of the difficulties, under which it has been published, and to bespeak an indulgent allowance for any imperfections, which may be observed in the style or arrangement. As a posthumous work, it has been deprived of those final improvements and emendations, which are generally made by Authors, while their works are in progress of publication. While, however, the work has laboured under these disadvantages, the publisher has felt it her duty to make every arrangement, to supply, as far as possible, the want of the author's personal superintendence of the publication. This course was due to the scientific reputation of her late husband, as well as to the numerous and generous patrons of the work.

Philadelphia, April, 1825.

[Pg vii]

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

[xv]

INTRODUCTION.

In presenting this work to the public as a system of Pyrotechny, which, we have reason to believe, is the only full and connected system that has appeared, we may be permitted to remark, that, in our arrangement of the subject, we have appropriated separate heads for each article.

This plan, of the subject being considered in chapters and sections, and forming with the divisions of the work, a connected system of arrangement, enables the reader to have a full view of the whole, and, at the same time, all the facts in detail belonging to the chapter, or section under consideration. By referring to the Table of Contents, this plan will be seen without further comment. The arrangement of the different articles in this manner, necessarily comprehends in the onset all the substances, which are employed in various preparations. In considering this part of our subject, we have given the chemical characters, or peculiar properties of each substance respectively; by which a rationale of pyrotechnical effects may be the better understood, and, consequently, the action of bodies on each other better illustrated.

In this part we also comprehend the General Theory of Fire-works, which it may be proper to remark, we have drawn from the known effects of chemical action; so far, at least, as the laws, of affinity, which govern such action, are applicable to the subject. The importance of this inquiry, although having no relation to the mere manipulations of the artificer, can not be doubted; since a knowledge of chemistry has already improved the preparation of gunpowder, and its effects are now known to be owing to the formation of sundry elastic aeriform fluids. On this head, that of the application of chemistry to Pyrotechny, we claim so much originality, as, so far as we know, to have been the first, who applied the principles of chemistry.

It is not to be expected in every instance, that a rationale of the decomposition as it occurs, or the order in which it takes place,[xvi] can be given with certainty; because, where a variety of substances enter into the same preparation, which is frequently the case, the affinities become complicated, and the laws of action for that reason indeterminate, and frequently anomalous. But, on the contrary, in a variety of primary operating causes, by which effects analogous in their nature result, decomposition of course being the same, the causes are well understood, and the effects are thereby known, and duly appreciated.

This, for instance, is the case with a mixture of nitrate of potassa, charcoal, and sulphur, in the proportion necessary to form gunpowder; for, it is known, that the explosive effects of powder are owing to the sudden production of a number of gases, which suffer dilatation by the immense quantity of caloric liberated at the moment of combustion. Although the production of caloric by the inflammation of gunpowder is a case, which cannot be explained by the present received theory of combustion, as we have noticed in that article; yet we know that it is a fact, and that caloric is generated by the decomposition of the powder.

If we consider the primary cause of this decomposition, we naturally inquire into the products of the combustion, and endeavour to account for the production of the elastic aeriform fluids. We know that carbon has the property of decomposing nitric acid, and also nitrate of potassa; for, when it is brought in contact in the state of ignition with nitre, a deflagration will ensue, and carbonic acid be formed. The quantity of this acid is in the direct ratio to the quantity of oxygen required to saturate a given quantity of carbon; and therefore, by employing certain proportions of nitre and charcoal, the latter will decompose the former, and by abstracting its oxygen, on the same principle form carbonic acid, while the azote, the other constituent of nitric acid, will be set at liberty. Nor is this all, if we consider the action of sulphur. The sulphur must unite with one portion of the oxygen to produce sulphurous acid gas, and also with the potassa of the nitre, and form a sulphuret, a compound necessary to be formed, before we can explain the production of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which results from the decomposition of water contained in the nitre. There also results, as a product, sulphate of potassa. In considering these products at large, it would be necessary to go into detail; and, as we have[xvii] descanted largely on its combustion in gunpowder, we accordingly refer the reader to the article on Gunpowder. It will be sufficient, however, to remark, that the agent, and consequently the cause, which produces the decomposition of nitrate of potassa, is carbon or charcoal. This, by uniting with the greater part of the oxygen of the nitre, produces, in a determinate proportion, carbonic acid gas. This gas, therefore, in conjunction with other gases, formed at the same time, all of which being expanded, causes what is denominated the explosive effect of gunpowder.

We have then a primary cause of the decomposition, and most of the effective force of gunpowder is owing to the carbonic acid; and it is found, that gunpowder made without sulphur is equally powerful as that with, since it adds nothing to its power.

Causes, therefore, chemically speaking, operate alike under similar circumstances. The materials made use of being equally pure, and used in the same proportion, the effect must necessarily be the same.

It is not only in the instance we have mentioned, but in every other, in which chemical action ensues, that this doctrine is tenable. We might, indeed, notice a number of cases of a similar kind; as, for instance, in the combustion of many incendiary preparations, as fire-stone, fire-rain, composition for carcasses, light-balls, and a variety of fire-works of the same kind. If we mix pitch, tar, tallow, &c. with nitrate of potassa, and burn the mixture, we have the combined action of two elementary substances, which enter into the composition of these bodies, namely, carbon and hydrogen. The products would be carbonic acid gas, and water; because the oxygen of the nitre would unite with the hydrogen, as well as the carbon. If we employ sulphur at the same time, another product would be sulphurous acid gas, and probably sulphuric acid; and if gunpowder be used, as in the fire-stone composition, then, besides these products, we would have those of the gunpowder.

As this subject, however interesting to the theoretical pyrotechnist, cannot be understood without a knowledge of chemistry, it is obvious, that that science is a powerful aid to pyrotechny. It is unnecessary to dwell on this head. We may add, nevertheless that, in order to understand the effect of all mixtures, or compo[xviii]sitions made use of, it is necessary to consider the nature of the substances employed, and the manner in which chemical action takes place, and consequently the products, which determine in fact the characteristic property of each species of fire-work, and the phenomena on which it is predicated. All products of combustion depend on the substances thus decomposed, and by knowing the effects, we may readily refer them to their proper causes.

With respect to caloric, it may not be improper to offer some remarks.[1] The hypothetical element of phlogiston having given way to the antiphlogistic theory at present received, our ideas respecting caloric are predicated on facts. Caloric is a term, which expresses heat, or matter of heat. In pyrotechny, we have merely to consider it in a free, or uncombined state; but as the subject is interesting, we purpose to notice it very briefly under the following heads: viz. its nature; the manner it is set in motion; its tendency to a state of rest; the changes it produces on bodies; and the instruments for measuring its intensity.

As to the nature of caloric, different opinions are entertained. We know the effect of heat: if we touch a substance of a higher temperature than our bodies, we call it hot, and vice versa. The one is evidently the accession, and the other the abstraction, of caloric. The latter is merely relative as respects ourselves; for the effect depends on our feelings, and the sensation of hot or cold is therefore governed by them.[2] Caloric, however, is considered [xix]to be a substance, composed of inconceivably small particles; but count Rumford and sir H. Davy are of a contrary opinion, namely, that it depends upon a peculiar motion and not on a subtle fluid.

As the effect of caloric, according to their view, depends on motion, the agencies by which this is effected are of the first importance. That it exists in all bodies in a state of rest, and in a greater or smaller quantity, and consequently in a relative proportion, is well known, and on this, the capacities of bodies for caloric is founded. The capacities of bodies for heat are changed by various means, and caloric is put in motion; and, according to its quantity, the bodies may be either cold or hot. When the surrounding bodies become heated, they receive this caloric thus set free, and, in this view, the absolute quantity of their heat is increased. This state of rest, to which caloric is subject, may be destroyed either by an increase or a diminution of the capacity of a body. If caloric be put in motion by causes of any kind, which influence the capacities of different bodies, a theory maintained by Davy, then as the capacity for heat is changed so is free heat produced. Diminish the capacity of a body, its excess will of course be given out, and distribute itself among the surrounding bodies, which become heated; but increase the capacity, and a different effect ensues. The body absorbs caloric, by which its capacity is increased, and cold is produced. Caloric, whether considered a substance, or an attribute, possesses, nevertheless, this property, that when it is given out, as in the mixture of sulphuric acid and water, which occupies a less space than both in a separate state, the sensation of heat follows; and when it is absorbed, as in the various freezing mixtures, or in a mixture of snow and common salt, the sensation of cold is excited. The causes, [xx]however, which set caloric in motion, or that produce heat, are such as combustion, condensation, friction, chemical mixture, and the like. It is remarkable, that these effects are invariably the same, and are affected by corresponding affinities. When a piece of iron is struck with a hammer, the percussion produces a condensation of the iron, its specific gravity is increased, and the iron finally becomes ignited. The condensation of air, in the condensing syringe, will set fire to tinder. The flint and steel produce a condensation; for the metal, although small, is sent off in scintillations in the state of ignition. That caloric is contained in bodies in the state of absolute rest, and is evolved by condensation, there is no doubt. Gunpowder, by percussion, in contact with pulverized glass, is inflamed; and it appears very probable, that it also contains caloric in a state of rest. The experiments of Lavoisier and Laplace, on the quantity of caloric actually absorbed in nitric acid, and in a latent state, (noticed in the article on gunpowder), are satisfactory. If caloric is not in that state in nitre, how are we to explain the sudden transmission or evolution of caloric in fired gunpowder, where no external agent in any manner can influence the formation, or disengagement of caloric? Friction or attrition produces heat; and the distributable excess of caloric, as it is called, although not satisfactorily accounted for, may arise from a condensation; which, however, is denied.

The Esquimaux Indians kindle a fire, very expeditiously, in the following manner: They prepare two pieces of dry wood, and making a small hole in each, fit into them a little cylindrical piece of wood, round which a thong is put. Then, by pulling the ends of this thong, they whirl the cylindrical piece about with such velocity, that the motion sets the wood on fire, when lighting a little dry moss, which serves for tinder, they make as large a fire as they please; but as the little timber they have is drift wood, this fails them in the winter, and they are then obliged to make use of their lamps for the supply of their family occasions. Ellis's Voyage for the Discovery of a North-West Passage.

Friction is, therefore, one means of producing distributable heat, which is also exemplified very frequently in the axis of a carriage wheel; of mill work; in the rubbing of wood, when turned on its axis in a lathe, by which turners ornament their work with black[xxi] rings; rubbing a cord very swiftly backwards and forwards against a post or tree, or letting it run over a boat, &c. as in the whale fishery; the motion of two iron plates against each other, pressing them at the same time, &c. The great object in the construction of machines is to avoid, or lessen the degree of friction. See Hatchette, Vince, and Gregory. Count Rumford (Nicholson's Journal, 4th edit. ii, 106), and professor Pictet (Essai sur le Feu, chap. ix.) have made some valuable experiments on heat evolved by friction.

The sun is one great source of caloric. In whatever mode it produces it, whether by giving it out from its own substance, by the action of light on the air that surrounds the globe; by the concentration of calorific rays by means of the atmosphere, acting as a lens; or by putting caloric in the distributable state, always pre-existing in some other, as in a state of rest, are questions, which, in our present state of knowledge, we are unable to solve. We know the fact, and that the caloric is of the same nature as that obtained by combustion.[3]

[xxii]

Combustion is a process by which caloric is put in a distributable state. The opinion of Stahl and others, that all combustible bodies contained a certain principle called phlogiston, to which[xxiii] they owed their combustibility, and that combustion was nothing more than a separation of this principle, gave rise to the phlogistic or Stahlian theory, which was afterwards modified by Dr.[xxiv] Priestley. But his theory is equally untenable. Kirwan's opinion was no less vague, although he substituted hydrogen for phlogiston.

The Lavoiserian, or antiphlogistic theory overturned the Stahlian. According to this theory, a combustible in burning unites with oxygen, and heat and light are given out by the gas, and not from the combustible. According to a modified theory of the above, by Dr. Thomson, caloric is evolved by the gas, and light from the burning body. Without noticing the instances, in which this theory, as a general one, is insufficient to explain the cause of combustion, or of the production of heat and light, we will merely remark, that bodies which support combustion are called supporters, as oxygen gas, chlorine gas, &c. and those, that undergo this change, are named combustible bodies.

The products of combustion may be fixed or gaseous, and either alkalies, oxides, or acids; or, when chlorine is the supporter, chlorides, &c. A few examples will be sufficient. By the combustion[xxv] of metals, iron for instance, we obtain a fixed product, and in the present case an oxide of iron; by the combustion of antimony and arsenic, the antimonic and arsenic acids; by the combustion of charcoal, we have carbonic acid gas, a gaseous product; by the combustion of potassium or sodium, we obtain a fixed alkali, depending however on the quantity of oxygen; by the combustion of sulphur, phosphorus, &c. acids; and when metals are burnt in chlorine gas, chlorides are produced.

It is evident from facts, that, whatever theory may be assumed, combustion occasions the production of free caloric, or changes the condition of caloric, from quiescent to distributable heat. The conclusions drawn by Mr. Davy and others, appear to have been predicated on the absorption of the base, and development of caloric, as in oxygen gas, and the peculiar alteration in bodies implying a decrease in their capacity; and hence, as regards the products of combustion, they must necessarily possess a less capacity for heat than the mean capacity of their constituents.

Whether we regard heat as latent, in the acceptation of the term, as applied or used by Dr. Black, or quiescent, or in a state of rest, it is certainly evident, that combustion is a chemical change, and by it caloric passes from a combined to an uncombined state, and is thus made sensible, free, or thermometrical heat. Combustion may, as it certainly does, put quiescent heat in a distributable state; but this quiescent heat is the same in the present case, of which there can be no doubt, as latent caloric. The thermometer will only indicate as much caloric in the air as is in a distributable, or free state; but, if the same air be employed to supply, or support combustion, the heat, rendered appreciable by the senses and the thermometer, will be in the ratio of the decomposition of the oxygen gas of the atmosphere, and, of course, to the development of free caloric.

Chemical combination, such as occurs by the mixture of fluids, as alcohol and water, sulphuric acid and water, some of the gases, as muriatic acid gas with water, &c. evolves heat, and sometimes sufficient to boil water. In cases of spontaneous combustion, it would seem, that quiescent heat passes to the state of distributable heat; for if nitric acid, for instance, contains so large a quantity of quiescent heat, or fixed heat, as the experiments of Mr.[xxvi] Lavoisier make it appear, we may readily explain why spontaneous combustion ensues, when that acid is brought in contact with spirits of turpentine; because the chemical action of the acid on the carbon and hydrogen of the turpentine, which takes place, produces at the same time a corresponding change in the caloric itself, from a quiescent to a distributable state. If the same data be admissible with regard to the combination of the nitric acid with potassa, which we may judge to be the case by the experiments of Lavoisier and Laplace, (quoted in our article on Gunpowder), then, indeed, its mechanical union with charcoal, and sulphur, although in a common temperature no combustion ensues, will, at the temperature required to inflame the mixture, (about 700 degrees according to some), produce a decomposition altogether chemical; and while new products are formed, the caloric, necessary also for their generation, passes from a quiescent to a distributable state; and a portion of it goes into a new state of combination, also quiescent. We mean that portion which is necessary for the constitution of gaseous fluids. This fact is remarkable. By referring to the original state or condition of the caloric, if we admit that state in the present instance, (which appears the only mode of accounting for the emanation of free caloric by the combustion of gunpowder), it is easily perceived, that chemical changes, besides the usual supporters of combustion being concerned, as in ordinary cases of combustion, must produce a similar change in the state of combined or quiescent heat.

Predicating this opinion on the results of the experiments of MM. Lavoisier and Laplace, and seeing that gunpowder inflames per se, or without the aid of a gaseous supporter, we have no hesitation in risking it, in the present state of our knowledge concerning heat as our present belief and conviction. Although there is no satisfactory theory offered to explain all the instances of spontaneous combustion, yet it seems reasonable to conclude, that in many cases at least, that effect may take place by some chemical action, which, like the instances already quoted, may change quiescent into distributable heat. We have stated (See Gunpowder) some instances of spontaneous combustion, which have taken place merely in consequence of the charcoal. Some have attributed the effect to pyrophorus, and others to the presence[xxvii] of hydrogen in the coal, which, by absorbing and combining with oxygen and forming water, sets the caloric of the oxygen gas at liberty, and thus produces combustion. However this may be, there are other instances, that of cotton and oil, some kinds of wood, wood-ashes and oils, &c. which have produced spontaneous combustion.

We will only add, however, that until we can give a better theory, the effect in these instances may be attributed to chemical action, and with it, the change of caloric in the manner already mentioned. Chemical action in such cases appears necessary, although mechanical means, as percussion will produce heat.

Quiescent heat is also put in motion by electricity; but in what manner it acts, so as to produce that effect, is unknown. It is a powerful agent in nature, and calculated for important ends, of which we are ignorant. It is unnecessary to notice opinions concerning it. All electrics will yield it, such as glass, rosin, &c. and it may be collected in the usual manner by the prime conductor and Leyden jar. Galvanism, called also Galvanic electricity, produced by an arrangement of zinc, and copper plates in a pile, or trough, and placed in contact with some oxygenizing fluid, has the same effect of causing quiescent heat to become distributable, and is undoubtedly the result of chemical action. The peculiar character of this fluid, the nature of the two opposite poles, &c. have been, and continue to be, a subject of interest to the philosopher. The deflagrator of professor Hare of Philadelphia is an apparatus well calculated for many interesting experiments on galvanism. To that gentleman, we are also indebted for the compound blowpipe, which produces a very intense heat by the combustion of hydrogen in contact with oxygen gas. Notwithstanding professor Clark of England has laid claim to the apparatus, and the use of hydrogen gas in this way, the merit of the discovery is due to our learned and ingenious countryman.

Since heat is put in motion as a consequence of the increased capacity of a body, and, by combining with a substance whose capacity has been increased, becomes by degrees quiescent, according to the respective capacities of bodies; cold is an effect, which is occasioned by this change from a free to a combined or quiescent state. The absorption of heat, necessary for the gene[xxviii]ration of cold, if so we may consider it, takes place in every instance, where that effect is observed. The heat of surrounding bodies, in a distributable state, is now no longer characterised as such; and the consequence is, therefore, that that particular sensation, or effect follows.

Cold may be produced by saline mixtures, the salts for which having their full quantum of the water of crystallization; and by the evaporation of fluids, as water, alcohol and ether. In the one case, that of the freezing mixtures, we have seen, that the effect is produced by the absorption of heat; and with regard to the cold produced by fluids, even in vacuo, (where the effect is more instantaneous), the cause is attributable to evaporation; for the fluid changes from a liquid to an aeriform state, and during this transition robs the body, with which it was in contact, of a part of its caloric, and thereby reduces its temperature. Artificial ice is made on this principle.

The next subject with regard to heat, is the different modes in which it tends to a state of rest. There are some facts in relation to this subject worthy of notice; and particularly, that, in the tendency of caloric to become quiescent, after having been put in motion, bodies often increase in temperature. This tendency to a state of rest is effected either by the conducting power of bodies, or radiation. Heat radiates in all directions, and in quantities, according to the experiments of Leslie, more or less variable, which depend on the nature of the radiating surface. Hence that power, which bodies possess, called the radiating power, varies in different substances. Thus, the radiating power of lampblack is 100, while gold, silver, copper, and tin plate are 12, from which it appears that the metals distribute less heat by radiation. That caloric obeys the same laws as light, is obvious from Pictet's experiments with concave mirrors, where the calorific rays move in the same order, the angle of incidence being equal to the angle of reflection. It is also refracted; hence the concentration of the solar rays in a focus by the burning glass. Various experiments have been made with mirrors, and concave reflectors. The effect of the former in destroying the fleet before Syracuse, an experiment made by Archimedes, is a fact well authenticated in history. Concave reflectors have inflamed gunpowder.[xxix] This subject, however, is noticed at large, when speaking of mirrors as an incendiary in war.

That bodies conduct heat, and with different degrees of power, so that some are called good and others bad conductors, is well known. This property depends on the quantity of caloric, which a body receives, before it changes its state. Metals are considered good conductors, and glass, charcoal, feathers, &c. bad conductors. Hence bad conductors, as wool, &c. preserve the temperature of the body, or keep it warm in winter; and snow, for the same reason, prevents the action of intense cold on the ground. Liquids also conduct heat. Whether we consider caloric in this case carried, or transported, as it is more properly defined, the fact may be shown by several experiments. Ebullition, or boiling, is a phenomenon, which depends on the increment of temperature; for as water, for instance, receives caloric, until the thermometer indicates 212 degrees, the boiling point, mere evaporation ensues; but that temperature, under the usual pressure of the atmosphere, causes the formation of bubbles at the bottom of the vessel, as that part receives the degree of heat necessary for ebullition before any other; and these bubbles, as they form, rise in succession, and pass off in the state of steam, while the circumjacent fluid takes its place, and the process continues till all is boiled away. Water, when it passes off in the state of steam, which requires a degree of heat equal to 212 degrees of Fahrenheit, receives also 1000 degrees of non-distributable caloric, or latent heat; and however singular the fact may appear, the wise Author of Nature, it seems, has reserved a store of caloric, in this form, ready to be put in requisition, when necessity demands it, in a distributable shape.

Caloric, when in a state of rest, exists in different proportions, and although the actual temperature may be the same, yet the quantity of caloric in a quiescent state may be variable. There are several experiments, which are adduced to illustrate this fact. It results from experiment, that bodies receive heat according to their several capacities for it; hence, when any number of bodies are differently heated, the caloric, which becomes latent, does not distribute itself in equal quantities, but in various proportions, according, as we remarked, to their several capacities. Caloric,[xxx] therefore, in a state of rest, is in relative quantities; and as the capacity of bodies for heat is variable, and relative as to each other, the term specific caloric has been applied. From these conclusions, we may readily perceive what is implied by an equality of temperature. That it merely depends on the state of rest, which caloric necessarily comes to, and which is relative as respects the capacity of bodies, and nothing more, is a deduction very plain and obvious. Heat, in a state of motion, may be said to be progressing to a quiescent state; and equalization of temperature, although differently understood, may be considered an equalization of fixed caloric, according to the relative capacity of bodies, without regarding the equalization, which takes place of uncombined caloric, as is manifested by thermometrical instruments. In a word, by considering caloric in this view, that of tending to a state of rest, and uniting with bodies according to their respective capacities, we may account for many phenomena; as, for instance, the quantity of caloric which enters into ice, and becomes latent, during liquefaction. The quantity of caloric, in this respect, may be learnt by adding a pound of ice at 32 degrees to a pound of water at 172 degrees. The temperature will be much below 102 degrees, the arithmetical mean, viz. 32 degrees. It is evident that the excess of caloric has disappeared; and by deducting 32 degrees from 172 degrees, 140 degrees remain, which is the quantity of caloric that enters into a pound of ice during liquefaction, or the quantity required to raise a pound of water from 32 degrees to 172 degrees. This change of capacity appears to be absolutely essential to the well being of the universe, as affording a constant modification of the action of heat and cold, the effects of which would otherwise be inordinate. If this did not take place, the whole of a mass of water, which was exposed to a temperature above the boiling point, would be instantly dissipated in vapour with explosion. The polar ice, would all instantly dissolve, whenever the temperature of the circumambient air was above 32 degrees, if it were not that each particle absorbs a quantity of caloric in its solution, and thereby generates a degree of cold which arrests and regulates the progress of the thaw; and the converse of this takes place in congelation, which is in its turn moderated by the heat developed in conse[xxxi]quence of the diminution of capacity, which takes place in the water during its transition to a solid state. The reason why boiling water in the open air never reaches a higher temperature than 212 degrees is evident, if we consider, that the capacity of those portions of liquid, which are successively resolved into a vapour, becomes thereby sufficiently augmented to enable them to absorb the superabundant caloric as fast as it is communicated.

The most obvious effect of caloric on bodies, is the change, which they undergo when exposed to its action.

That it acts constantly in opposition to the attraction of cohesion or of aggregation, by which bodies pass from a solid to a fluid, and from a fluid to an aeriform state, and produces also different changes in bodies,—are facts that come under our daily observation.

It occasions changes in the bulk of bodies; hence solids, liquids, and gases are expanded. The expansion, and subsequent contraction of atmospheric air, give rise to various winds, which are currents of air rushing from one point of the compass to another to maintain an equilibrium. The theory of the winds is predicated on this fact, although some have asserted, that they depend greatly on the diurnal motion of the earth. The air thermometer of Sanctorius, and the differential thermometer of Leslie, are founded on this principle, of the expansion of air. Fluids expand until they arrive at the boiling point, as is the case with water, alcohol, &c. The expansion of mercury, in a glass tube, furnished with a graduated scale, forms the mercurial thermometer, by the rise and fall of which, the different variations of temperature are marked.

Notwithstanding caloric has the property of expanding bodies, there are some exceptions to this law, which may be proper to notice. Water, for instance, at the temperature below 40° contracts at every increment of temperature until it reaches 40°, which is its maximum of density. Above 40° it expands, until it arrives at the boiling point. Alumina, or pure argillaceous earth, also contracts by heat; hence it is used in the pyrometer of Wedgwood, to measure by its contraction intense degrees of heat. Various saline substances, in the act of crystallization, also expand. Several of the metals, when previously melted, on cooling exhibit the same[xxxii] character; and water, in the act of freezing, exerts a powerful force by its expansion, competent to the bursting of shells, and the splitting of rocks.

The changes in bodies, produced by caloric, we have already noticed. We will only add, that fluids require different temperatures, called the boiling point, to make them boil, under the same atmospheric pressure. Water boils at 212°. Many observations have been made with respect to water, both in the state of ice, and the state of vapour. Besides the accession of 212 degrees of caloric, appreciable by the thermometer, in water in the state of steam, there is also an accession of non-distributable caloric, called latent heat, which is calculated at 1000°. In consequence of this circumstance, steam has been judiciously applied to various useful purposes, and particularly in a certain manner for the drying of gunpowder.

That chemical changes are produced by the agency of caloric, is a fact well known. It is supposed to occasion decompositions, according to the laws of affinity, by changing previous affinities, and causing new affinities to take place. Hence the operations by fire, whether the substances themselves are exposed in a dry state to the action of heat, or otherwise, produce new results, or compounds, which could not be made without it. This truth has long been obvious. In consequence of a knowledge of this fact, Dr. Black (Lectures vol. i, p. 12,) defined "chemistry to be the study of the effects of heat and mixture, with the view of discovering their general and subordinate laws, and of improving the useful arts."

Caloric as a powerful auxiliary, performing as it does an innumerable multitude of changes and effects, an agent by which the operations of the universe are maintained in order and harmony for universal good, exerts the same effect in the furnace of the chemist, as in the great laboratory of nature; and regulates, and determines all the consequences, which follow a succession of fixed, and appointed changes.[4]

[xxxiii]

We have thus, in this brief and hasty outline of the nature, principal effects, and properties of caloric, detailed the leading facts on this subject; from which it will be seen, that caloric, so far as respects its generation by the combustion of different pyro-mixtures, and effects, generally, should form a part of Pyrotechny, and claim the attention of those, who are connected with the preparation of Fire-Works.

Respiration is also a process which puts quiescent heat in motion.[5]

In the second part of the work, we embrace the furniture of a laboratory, for the use of fire-workers, consisting of various tools and utensils.

Under this head, we also embrace sundry manipulations, such as the preparation of substances for use, the manner of forming mixtures, and various anterior operations. The formation of pasteboard for cases, the mode of forming as well as charging cases,[xxxiv] different modes of charging rockets, the dimensions of rammers, mallets &c. This preliminary ought to be well understood; as the successful practice of the art depends greatly on these operations. We may observe, however, that we have had occasion to repeat some of these manipulations in certain instances, to make them more intelligible; or rather to present, more in connection with the subject, a detail of minutiæ.

In the different compositions, the reader will bear in mind, that the copious collection of formulæ, both old and new, embraces all the facts, with which we are acquainted, concerning pyrotechnical preparations.

In most instances, where the importance of the subject required it, we designated, or set apart from the rest, formulæ, which have been approved, and particularly in France.

This is more particularly the case as it respects the fourth and last part, which appertains exclusively to Military Fire-Works. On this subject, permit me to remark, that fire-works, intended for the purposes of war, should be depended on; and for that reason, in order to produce a certain effect, the materials of which they are composed should be pure, weighed with accuracy in the proportions required, and carefully mixed according to the rules laid down. It is true, however, that while this nicety is required in particular cases, it is unnecessary in the formation of all fire-works. The composition for carcass and light-ball, for tourteaux, links, and fascines, and some others, do not require that precision; whereas the composition for fuses for bombs, howitzes, and grenades should be in every respect accurately made; for on the accuracy of the composition, must depend the time a fuse will burn, which is afterwards regulated by using more or less of the fuse, according to the time it will take for the shell to reach its destination, on which depends the skill of the bombardier. Accuracy, however, in making of preparations should be a general rule.

Viewing Pyrotechny either as a science or an art, there is undoubtedly required in its prosecution much skill and practice. A knowledge of the theory of fire-works may be readily acquired. The mere artificer or fire-worker, by constant habit and experience, may understand it is true how to mix materials, prepare compositions, charge cases, and perform all other mechanical ope[xxxv]rations; but it is equally certain, that, without a knowledge of chemistry, he cannot understand the theory. We would not say, that the workman should be a chemist, but that he should know enough to determine the purity of the substances he employs, and their respective qualities and effects; for if that principle were admitted, we might go further and say, that every person, who practices a chemical art, as the tanner, gluemaker, brazier, &c. should be a chemist, or that the art could not be conducted without a previous knowledge of chemistry, which we know is contrary to fact. This, however, may be said, that in all arts which are decidedly chemical, as that of dying for instance, chemical knowledge will enable the artist or operator to conduct his processes with better advantage, and correct any old routine, which is too often pursued, because it was handed down from generation to generation. Mr. Seguin in France facilitated the preparation of tanned leather, by adopting a new process altogether chemical. In a word, so far as chemistry is connected with the arts, and by which we explain the operations that take place, it is undoubtedly important; and with regard to Pyrotechny, it appears, in the way we have mentioned, to be indispensable. Chaptal (Elements de Chimie) observes, that the works of artificers frequently miscarry in consequence of their being unacquainted with the art.

In noticing this subject, we may be permitted to digress, while we state, that, being fully convinced of this truth, we have directed our labours in the Chemical Department of the United States' Military Academy to two distinct objects; viz. to theoretical and experimental chemistry, forming the first year's course, and chemistry in its application to the arts, manufactures, and domestic economy, constituting, along with mineralogy, the course of the second year. In addition to the usual applications, Pyrotechny, in the manner we have stated, and especially that branch which treats of military fire-works, has claimed our attention; and we have reason to believe, that this addition, to the usual course of chemical instruction, has considerably advanced the utility, especially to gentlemen designed for the army, of the application of chemistry.

The system of instruction adopted throughout the academy, in the different departments, (the plan of which may be seen in the new Army Regulations, article Military Academy), which, we[xxxvi] have no hesitation in believing, is the most complete of any in the United States, and by far the most extensive,[6] is so regulated, that each section of a class regularly recite, and are interrogated on each subject of instruction, so that, while an emulation to excel is thus excited, the comparative merit or standing of the cadets is thereby determined. Adopting the same system in the Chemical department, that of interrogation on the subject of the preceding lecture, has many peculiar advantages; so that, while the mind and memory of the pupil are thus exercised, a comparative estimate of the progress of each one is obtained during each week, by which we are enabled, as in other departments, to present a Weekly Class Report of their progress.

While we are indebted to the talents and industry of the professors and teachers of the Academy, for the flourishing condition it is now in, and the progress of the cadets in every branch there taught; it is but justice to remark, that for the present organization of the academy, as relates to the studies, which is obviously preferable to the old system, and also for the improvements in instruction, we are indebted to the present superintendent, Col. S. Thayer, of the U. S. corps of engineers.

Considering pyrotechny, abstract from the questions usually given, and forming a distinct branch, it may be proper to remark, that the interrogatories on this head have been minutely and satisfactorily answered. The following outline will exhibit the order in which such questions were put, observing, however, that they are merely in connection with this subject:

What is saltpetre? What is nitric acid? What is potash? What are the sources of saltpetre, and how is it obtained? How is it formed in nitre beds, extracted, and refined? What circumstances are necessary to produce nitre, and how does animal matter act in its production? What is the difference between the old and new process for refining saltpetre? What reagents are used to discover the presence of foreign substances in nitre? What are nitre caves? Where do they exist? What are the nitre caves of the[xxxvii] Western country, and how is nitre extracted from the earth? What proportion of nitre does the saltpetre earth of the nitre caves afford? What is the theory of the process for extracting saltpetre from nitrous earth, or nitrate of lime? What is sulphur? How is it obtained, and how is it purified for the manufacture of gunpowder? Of what use is sulphur in the composition of gunpowder? Does it add to the effective force of gunpowder? What is charcoal? What is the best mode of carbonizing wood for the purpose of gunpowder? What woods are preferred for this purpose? In the charring of wood, what part is converted into coal, and what gas and acid are disengaged? What is the use of charcoal in gunpowder? What is gunpowder? What are considered the best proportions for forming it, and what constitutes the difference between powder for war, for gunning, and for mining? How does the combustion of gunpowder take place? Can you explain why combustion takes place without the presence of a gaseous supporter of combustion, as gunpowder will inflame in vacuo? What are the products of the combustion of gunpowder? What gases are generated? To what is the force of fired gunpowder owing? What are the experiments of Mr. Robins on the force of gunpowder? How would you separate the component parts of gunpowder, so as to determine their proportions? What are gunpowder proofs? What is understood by the comparative force of gunpowder? What are eprouvettes? &c. In noticing in the same manner the preparations used for fire-works, and for war, as the rocket for instance, the following questions were propounded; viz. What is a rocket? How is it formed? Is the case always made of paper? What is the war rocket? What is the composition for rockets, and how does it act? What particular care is required in charging a rocket? What is the cause of the ascension of rockets? What is the use of the conical cavity, made in a rocket at the time it is charged, or bored out after it is charged? How do cases charged with composition impart motion to wheels, and other pieces of fire-work? What is understood by the rocket principle? What is the rocket stick, and its use? Is the centre of gravity fixed, or is it shifting in the flight of rockets? How are rockets discharged? What is the head of a rocket? What is usually put in the head? Are all rockets furnished with a head?[xxxviii] What is understood by the furniture of a rocket? How are the serpents, stars, fire-rain, &c. forming the furniture of a rocket, discharged into the air, when the rocket has terminated its flight, or arrived at its maximum of ascension? What forms the difference between a balloon, in fire-works, and a rocket? As the balloon contains also furniture, and is projected vertically from a mortar, how is fire communicated to it, so as to burst it in the air? Is the fuse used, in this case the same as that for bombs, howitzes, and grenades? What is the Asiatic rocket? The fougette of the French? In what seige were they employed with success by the native troops of India? What was the nature of their war-rocket? What is the murdering rocket of the French? Is the conical head hollow, or solid, blunt or pointed? Why is it called the murdering rocket? What is the Congreve rocket? Is Congreve the inventor, or improver of this rocket? What are Congreve rockets loaded or armed with? In what part is the load placed? Is the case made of paper or sheet iron? What are the sizes of Congreve rockets?

What are the ranges of Congreve rockets? What angle of elevation produces the best range? How are Congreve rockets discharged in the field, and what number of men are usually employed for that service? Are the Congreve rockets considered to be a powerful offensive weapon; and, if so, in what particular? What is a carcass rocket? As an incendiary, is the carcass rocket equal to the usual carcass thrown from mortars? What is the carcass composition made of? What is the Congreve rocket light ball? In large rockets, are their sticks solid, or bored and filled with gunpowder? Why is that expedient used? &c.

It is obvious, that the student, after obtaining a knowledge of each subject by the preceding lecture, accompanied with demonstrations, is enabled to detail minutely all the facts in relation to it.

Pyrotechny, as known at present, is confined to a few books, and scattered in a desultory manner, without any regular or connected system. In fact the works which treat on this subject are in French, or translations from the French on particular subjects, but generally very imperfect. As applied to the uses of war, we may indeed say, that the small treatise of Bigot, (Traité d'Artifice[xxxix] de Guerre), and Ruggeri (Pyrotechnie Militaire) are the only works. We have, therefore, consulted these authors, as will be seen in the pages of the work.

Roger Bacon, in his Opus Majus, has given some account of the Greek fire, and of a composition, which seems to have had the effect of our modern gunpowder.

Malthus (Traité de l'Artillerie) contains some formulæ for Military Fire-Works. Anzelet and Vanorchis, in their several works, have given some receipts for incendiary preparations. Henzion (Recreations Mathématiques) and Joachim Butelius have also something on the subject.

The celebrated Polander, Casimir Siemienowicz, has nothing of any moment, if we except the incendiary fire-rain, an account of which may be seen in the fourth part of our work. His book is considered, however, the best of the whole of them. Belidor, Theodore Duturbrie, &c. have mentioned some preparations; but their works are chiefly confined to artillery.

The improvement of Pyrotechny is ascribed to the Germans and Italians, and the French acknowledge, that they are indebted for a knowledge of it to the Italians. Be this as it may, it is certain, that it was known in China from time immemorial. Their acquaintance with gunpowder, before it was known in Europe, is a fact which appears to be generally admitted. For an account of the Chinese fire-works, and the origin of gunpowder in Europe, consult these articles respectively.

Whatever merit we may claim in this work, as the public will be able to judge impartially, it will be seen, by referring to the different chapters and sections, that we have endeavoured to form a system, by presenting a connected view of the whole subject.

Having noticed under separate heads, the particular use and application of each composition, we have added a chapter on the arrangement of fire-works for exhibition, together with the order to be observed. We may remark here, that we have enlarged in this part more perhaps than its merit or importance deserves; but, on reflection, we thought it better to embrace the whole subject, in order to form a more complete system in all its parts.

After going through the fire-works for exhibition, and noticing the different formulæ, and preparations, for arrangement, with the[xl] theory of effects, we consider, in the next place, a subject of more importance, that of Military Pyrotechny. We have adopted this arrangement, more on account of obtaining a better acquaintance with ordinary fire-works, before the reader is prepared for military works, which he will understand with more facility; for all the preliminary operations precede the practical part.

On this head, it will be sufficient to add, to what we have already stated, that we have given in each article, generally speaking, a variety of formulæ, with ample instructions for the preparation of each composition. The table of contents will exhibit the order in which they are treated.

In noticing the substances used in fire-works, in the first part, it will be perceived, that we have noticed some of them more extensively according to their importance; as for instance, saltpetre. Besides the different modes of obtaining saltpetre in Europe and elsewhere, and the means employed for refining it, we mention the saltpetre caves of the western country, which furnish an abundance of this article, and which contain an almost inexhaustible supply.

The extraction of saltpetre from the earth, (principally nitrate of lime), by using a lixivium of wood-ashes; the formation of rough, and subsequently of refined nitre; the various methods of refining saltpetre, and particularly that adopted in France; with sundry facts respecting the origin of nitre, and on the formation of artificial nitre beds; all claim our particular notice.

The extraction of sulphur from its combinations, and the means used for purifying it for the purpose of gunpowder, are also considered in the same manner.

The subject of charcoal, an essential constituent of gunpowder, claims, in like manner, particular attention. The various modes of charring, the woods employed, the quantity of coal obtained, the formation of pyroacetic acid in the process of carbonization, and many facts of the same kind are considered. These subjects, viz. nitre, charcoal, and sulphur, are highly important to the manufacturer of gunpowder.

A knowledge of the various processes for refining saltpetre; the best and most approved modes of carbonizing wood; the purification and quality of sulphur; the different processes for making gunpowder, with the proportion of the ingredients used in France[xli] and elsewhere; the granulation, glazing, and drying of powder, the use of the steam apparatus, and the different modes of proving it, and of examining it chemically; and the means of ascertaining the purity of nitre in any specimen of gunpowder; are, with others, subjects of particular interest to the gunpowder manufacturer.

With respect to the Theory of the explosion of gunpowder, we have noticed it at some length, and have added the experiments and observations of Mr. Robins, and of other persons, made at different periods.

In the consideration of the gaseous products, and the caloric evolved by the combustion of powder, we have taken a view of the gases produced, the cause of their production, the dilatation which they suffer, and the experiments of Lavoisier and Laplace, with regard to latent heat, and deducing therefrom some views of the probable cause of the production of caloric in fired gunpowder.[7]

[xlii]

Our observations respecting rockets, the theory of their ascension, of the Congreve carcass and Asiatic rockets, and some others, are we apprehend sufficiently extensive. As it regards the different incendiary compositions, and their use in war, the reader will find ample instructions on these heads.

We may also remark, that we have given some of the more common, or general properties of the substances, employed in the composition of fire-works, without going into that detail, which belongs exclusively to works that treat of Chemistry. It was neither our design, nor have we given, for the reasons thus stated, all the chemical characters or properties of the substances so employed; and, therefore, have confined ourselves, generally speaking, to an enumeration of such properties as are connected with the subject, or are indispensably necessary to be known, before a rationale of the causes and effects can be understood.

It was our intention to accompany the work with plates, exhibiting the arrangement, &c. of fire-works, which, there can be no doubt, would have facilitated in particular the knowledge of forming, and arranging, certain pieces of fire-work; but, on second reflection, as such illustrations were connected more with fancy exhibitions, and have little or no relation to Military Fire-works, the most useful branch of Pyrotechny, we were finally of opinion, that the addition of plates would greatly enhance the price, without advancing or adding to the value of the work.

If, however, a second edition should be required, various figures in illustration of particular subjects may be added, either with a distinct explanatory chapter, or a reference from the articles themselves, with the necessary explanation, to the figures respectively.

It would require at least twenty-five plates to include all the figures we originally intended to have introduced.

Before concluding this introduction, it remains for us to remark, that, in forming this work, we consulted a variety of authors, but with little advantage, except some French works, which we shall notice. Chaptal (Chimie Appliqué aux Arts;) Bigot (Artifice de[xliii] Guerre;) Morel (Feux d'Artifice;) Thenard (Traité de Chimie;) Ruggeri (Pyrotechnie Militaire;) MM. Bottée and Riffault (Traité de L'Art de Fabriqué la Poudre à canon;) Peyre (Le Mouvement Igné;) Biot (Traité de Physique, Recherches Experimentales et Mathématique, sur les mouvement des Molecules de la Lumiere, &c.;) M. Duloc (Theorie Nouvelle sur le Mechanisme de l'Artillerie;) the Dictionnaire de l'Industrie; the Dictionnaire Encyclopedique des Arts et Metiers Mecaniques, article Art de L'Artificier; Œuvre Militaire; Archives des Découvertes; Système des Connoissances Chimiques par A. F. Fourcroy; Aide-Mémoire a l'usage des officiers d'Artillerie de France.

We examined various authors in English; and with regard to the origin of inventions, we found the learned, and valuable work of professor Beckman (History of Inventions) very useful, and likewise James's Military Dictionary. To the Encyclopedia Britannica, we are indebted for many interesting facts, and some extracts on fire-works for exhibition.

On the subject of mining, we consulted the Treatise on mines for the use of the Royal Military Academy, by Landmann.

We deem it necessary to observe, that, in collecting our formulæ for military fire-works, although we have sometimes extracted from the Strasbourg Memoir, the Bombardier and Pocket Gunner, and the Military Dictionary of Duane and James, we have generally followed Bigot; as the formulæ which he gives for the preparation of Military fire-works have been approved by the French government; and where any thing of importance occurred in Ruggeri, we have, for the same reason, extracted such formulæ from that author.

As respects the turtle, torpedo, and catamarin, submarine machines, it appears that Bushnel (Trans. Am. Phil. Soc.) claims the originality of the discovery from the date of his invention, although similar contrivances had long ago been suggested. Fulton's improvements, in the torpedo, are deserving of particular attention; but it is plain, that the Catamarin of the English is the same in principle and application as Fulton's torpedo, and that Fulton deserves the merit of it. Congreve, if we believe Ruggeri, was not the inventor of the rocket, which bears his name; for, according to him, it was invented about the year 1798 by a naval officer at[xliv] Bourdeaux. It is certain, however, it was neither much known, nor used before the attack on Copenhagen.

It is certain that the present incendiary fire-stone was taken from the recipe for fire-rain contained in the military work of Cassimir Siemienowicz, or that the fire-rain gave rise to a similar preparation. The idea of the pyrophore, mentioned in the Archives des Découvertes, must have originated from the use of the powder-barrel, and of similar means of defence. We might enumerate many other inventions, which owe their origin in the same way.

[Pg 1]

A SYSTEM

OF

PYROTECHNY.

PART I.

CHAPTER I.

PYROTECHNY IN GENERAL.

Sec. I. Definition of Pyrotechny.

Pyrotechny is defined the doctrine of artificial fire-works, whether for war or exhibition, and is derived from the Greek, πυρ fire, and τεχνη art. In a more general sense, it comprehends the structure and use of fire-arms, and the science which teaches the management and application of fire in several operations.

Sec. II. General theory of Pyrotechny.

In the composition of artificial fire, various substances are employed, having different properties, and designed to produce certain effects characterised by particular phenomena. These substances are either inflammable, or support the combustion of inflammable bodies. As pyrotechnical mixtures are differently formed, and of various substances, the effects are also modified, although combustion, under some shape always takes place.

Combustion is either modified, retarded, or accelerated;[2] and in consequence of the presence of certain substances, different appearances are given to flame.

The conditions necessary for combustion are, the presence of a combustible substance, of a supporter of combustion, and a certain temperature. Thus, charcoal when raised to the temperature of 800° in the open air, takes fire. This elevation of temperature enables it to act chemically on the oxygen gas of the atmosphere; the latter, as it comes in contact, being decomposed. Now, as oxygen gas is a combination of oxygen and caloric, the caloric being in a latent state, the charcoal unites with the oxygen, and the phenomena of combustion ensue; that is, an evolution of heat and light. The caloric of the decomposed gas is given out in a free state, and, according to the theory of Dr. Thomson, (Thomson's System of Chemistry, vol. i.) the light proceeds from the burning body. We have then an instance of combustion, in which there is a combustible, a supporter of combustion, and an elevated temperature. The old theory of combustion, called the Stahlian theory, which presupposes an element called phlogiston, or a principle of fire, to exist in all bodies under some modification, would explain these effects by merely supposing, that combustion was nothing more than a disengagement of phlogiston; and that when a body had lost its inflammable principle, (as a metal, when oxidized), it became dephlogisticated. But, as it proved that phlogiston is a hypothetical element, and the anti-phlogistic doctrine clearly shows, that combustion is no other than a process which unites the supporter with the combustible, forming new products; it follows, that, in all changes of the kind, the same reasoning will apply, and the same principle be tenable.

The products of combustion depend on the nature of the substance burnt, and the supporter employed. Thus, in the instance just mentioned, the charcoal, by its union with oxygen, is changed into carbonic acid, which takes the gaseous state. We say then, that carbonic acid is the product of the combustion of charcoal, or, chemically speaking, of carbon. As resins, oil, &c. contain hydrogen, as well as carbon, the products in such cases would be water, as well as carbonic acid.

The chemical effects, therefore, which we consider in fire-works, forming the basis on which a theory of sundry phenomena may be formed, are no other than the result of the action of one body on another, according to the laws which govern such action, and the consequent operation of chemical combination. Combustion, in fire-works, may be con[3]sidered a primary agent in all effects which characterise artificial fire.

The second change, with respect to the appearance of the flame, the formation of stars, serpents, rain, &c. terms used in the art, is owing either to new chemical changes which the substances undergo, or to the decomposition of the products themselves. These effects, it is obvious, must be governed by the circumstances, under which the mixtures are made. Saltpetre, for instance, is the basis of fire-works, whether used in a separate state, or employed in mixture with charcoal and sulphur, as in gun-powder; and, from its composition, is adapted to all the purposes of the art, because it yields its oxygen very readily to all inflammable bodies. In consequence of the decomposition, it undergoes at an elevated temperature, when brought in contact with charcoal, sulphur, &c. and various substances which contain carbon, as pitch, rosin, turpentine, tallow, copal, and amber, combustion results, and, according to circumstances, is more or less rapid, and the flame also more or less brilliant.

When charcoal, in the state of ignition, is brought in contact with nitre, a deflagration takes place, because, at the temperature of ignition, it has the property of decomposing the nitric acid of the nitre; and as this process unites the carbon with the oxygen, in the proportion necessary to constitute carbonic acid, this acid is accordingly produced. When, therefore, we inflame a mixture of nitre, charcoal, and sulphur, or gun-powder, the whole or greater part disappears; and if we were to collect in a pneumatic apparatus, the products of the combustion, it would be found, that they are nearly altogether gaseous, and composed, as we shall speak hereafter, of sundry elastic aëriform fluids. This decomposition, the immediate effect of the charcoal on the nitric acid of the nitre, is the same as in the preceding instance, for carbonic acid gas is formed in both cases. We have then another instance of combustion, where a number of substances are concerned, and therefore, the products must be numerous.

We notice this subject more particularly, since, as in the different fire-works, nitre and inflammable bodies are used in different proportions, the result is always affected by the same laws of chemical decomposition; for the same substances, placed under similar circumstances of proportion, mixture, &c. afford the like results. If carbon alone be employed, carbonic acid gas is the result; if oil, tallow, rosin, or turpentine be used, we have then, as we had occasion to remark,[4] water, as well as carbonic acid, by reason of the union of the hydrogen, which forms one of their constituent parts, with a part of the oxygen of the nitric acid.

Again, in a composition of mealed powder, rosin and sulphur, with or without the addition of saw dust, we infer, from the composition of the ingredients and the chemical action which subsequently takes place, that the products of combustion would be carbonic acid gas, sulphurous acid gas, water, sulphuretted hydrogen, and probably azotic, and nitric oxide gases. If the filings of steel, brass, zinc, or copper, enter into the composition, besides the products above-mentioned, there would be either an oxide of iron, an oxide of zinc, or, an oxide of copper, according as one or other of these metals are employed.

Copper, in fire-works, has the effect of communicating a green colour to the flame. M. Homberg, (Collection Acad.) observes, that the green colour in such cases is owing to the dissolution of the metal, which in fact is nothing more than the effect of its oxidizement.

The various compositions for brilliant fire, as the Chinese fire, owe their peculiar character to pulverised cast iron, and commonly to steel and iron filings. Now the effects in these cases are the same; for the same oxidizement ensues, more or less rapidly, which in fact distinguishes the kinds of brilliant fire. That of the Chinese is the most perfect, and next is the composition made with steel filings. It will be seen, however, that compositions generally are governed, in their respective appearances when inflamed, by the purity, as well as the proportion of other substances, which enter into them; and hence much of their effect depends on collateral circumstances, which we purpose to consider when we treat of the compositions individually.

That the light of certain burning bodies may be increased, is evident from these facts; and experiment has shown, that the intensity of the light of burning sulphur, hydrogen, carbonic oxide, &c. is increased by throwing into them, zinc, or its oxide, iron, and other metals, or by placing in them very fine amianthus or metallic gauze. Protochloride of copper burns with a dense red light, tinged with green and blue towards the edges. If the hydrogen of the oil acts in separating the chlorine from the copper, and the reduced copper is ignited by the charcoal, this appearance must necessarily ensue.

When solid matter is the product of combustion, as in the burning of phosphorus, zinc, iron, &c. the flame is remark[5]ed to be more intense. Flame may be modified under other circumstances, as we will have occasion to mention hereafter. When, for instance, a wire-gauze safety-lamp is made to burn in a very explosive mixture of coal gas and air, the light is very feeble and of a pale colour; but when a current of coal gas is burnt in atmospheric air, the combustion is rapid and the flame brilliant.

Dr. Ure thinks it probable, (Dictionary of Chemistry, article combustion,) that, when the colour of the flame is changed by the introduction of incombustible compounds, the effect depends on the production, and subsequent ignition or combustion of inflammable matter from them. Thus he infers, that the rose-coloured light given to flame by the compounds of strontium and calcium, and the yellow colour given by those of barium, and the green by those of boron, may depend upon a temporary production of these bases, by the inflammable matter of the flame. It is inferred also, as a probable conclusion, that the heat of flames may be actually diminished by increasing their light, (at least the heat communicable to other matter), and vice versa; because, in the most intense heat, as in the compound blow pipe, or in Newman's blow pipe apparatus, in which a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases is compressed, the flame, although hardly visible in bright day light, instantly fuses the most refractory bodies; but the light of solid bodies ignited in it, is so vivid as to be painful to the eye.

Some curious facts with regard to flame, in connection with electricity, are given by Brande in the Phil. Trans. for 1814. He supposes that some chemical bodies are naturally in the resinous, and others in the positive electrical state. He supposes also, as a consequence, that the positive flame will be attracted, and neutralize the negative polarity, while the negative flame will operate a similar change by inducing an equilibrium at the positive pole. Thus he found, that certain flames were attracted by the positive ball of an electrical apparatus, and others attracted by the negative ball. The flame of sulphur and phosphorus is attracted by the positive pole, and the flame of camphor, resins, and hydrogen by the negative pole.

In relation to the production of flame, we may observe, that, as sundry solid and fluid substances are inflammable, the products of combustion depend on the composition of the substance made use of, and the condition under which it is burnt. As to gaseous substances that are inflammable, the base of some gases, we may remark, as carbon and hydro[6]gen, unite in the process of combustion with the base of other gases, (as oxygen;) and in other instances, the gas itself takes fire, and exhibits the phenomena of flame. Now carbonic acid gas extinguishes flame, although its base is inflammable; but hydrogen, as well as hydrogen gas, is inflammable, and when burnt in oxygen gas or atmospheric air produces water, which also extinguishes the flame of burning bodies.

As we will have occasion to notice a variety of aëriform fluids, especially when we treat of the aëriform products of fired gun-powder, a few remarks on this head may be useful at this time.

By the combustion of bodies, substances are generated that are either gaseous or solid, whence arises the variety of products. Of aëriform fluids, some are coloured, as nitrous acid vapour, (nitrous gas and oxygen), chlorine, and the protoxide and deutoxide of chlorine. The first is red, the rest yellowish-green, or yellowish. Some relight a taper, provided the wick remain ignited, as oxygen gas, protoxide of azote, and the oxides of chlorine. Others produce white vapours in the air, as muriatic acid, fluoboric, fluosilicic, and hydriodic. The inflammable gases, which take fire in the air by contact of the lighted taper, are hydrogen, hydroguret, and bihydroguret of carbon, carbonic oxide, prussine or cyanogen, called also carburet of azote, and phosphuretted, sulphuretted, arsenuretted, telluretted, and potassuretted hydrogen. Other gases are acid, and redden litmus, which, for that reason, are called acid gases, such as nitrous, sulphurous, muriatic, fluoboric, hydriodic, fluosilicic, chlorocarbonic, and carbonic acids; the oxides of chlorine, sulphuretted hydrogen, telluretted hydrogen, and carburet of azote. Some gases are destitute of smell, as oxygen, azote and its protoxide, and carbonic acid; while others have a strong and characteristic odour, as ammoniacal gas. Some gases are very soluble in water, and others but slightly soluble, such as fluoric, fluosilicic, carbonic, sulphurous, and muriatic acids, and ammoniacal gas. Alkaline solutions absorb some gases, as nitrous, sulphurous, muriatic, fluoboric, carbonic, hydriodic, fluosilicic, chlorine, chlorocarbonic, and the two oxides of chlorine, sulphuretted hydrogen, telluretted hydrogen, and ammonia. Alkaline gases are ammonia, and potassuretted hydrogen.

The character of gases is well defined. The compound gas of phosphorus and hydrogen takes fire spontaneously in the atmosphere, burning with a brilliant white flame; but there is another gas formed of the same substances, that does[7] not inflame spontaneously, but is inflammable, called subphosphuretted hydrogen. This gas has a strong smell of garlic or phosphorus, and is luminous in the dark. It may be this peculiar combination, which gives rise to the ignes fatui; but the permanent ignes fatui, observed in volcanic countries, are said to be the slow combustion of sulphur, forming sulphurous acid gas. Sir H. Davy found, that phosphuretted hydrogen produced a flash of light when admitted into the best vacuum that could be made by an excellent pump of Nairn's construction.

Naphtha in contact with red hot iron glows with a lambent flame at a rarefaction of thirty times, though its flame ceases at an atmospheric rarefaction of six. Camphor ceases to burn in an air rarefied six times, but, in a glass tube which becomes ignited, the flame of camphor exists under ninefold rarefaction; whereas phosphorus, according to the experiments of Van Marum, will burn, although the atmosphere be rarefied sixty times. Hydrogen gas will burn in a rarefied air, when it is four or five times less than the pressure of the atmosphere, and its flame be extinguished, when the pressure is between seven and eight times less; from which it is inferred, that the flame is extinguished in rarefied atmospheres, only when the heat it produces is insufficient to keep up the combustion. Olefiant gas (hydroguret of carbon) ceased to burn in an atmosphere, where its pressure was diminished between ten and eleven times. The flames of alcohol and of wax taper were extinguished in an atmosphere, where pressure was five or six times less without the wire of platinum, and seven or eight times less when the wire was kept in the flame. See Flameless Lamp. Several interesting conclusions may be drawn from these facts, which, to enumerate, would lead us beyond our design. It will be sufficient, therefore, to add, that although a supporter of combustion is necessary for that process, and flame may be differently modified, yet combustion ceases if the pressure of the atmosphere be diminished in certain ratios, as already noticed.

Besides nitre, other saline substances which contain oxygen feebly combined, have been used for the same purpose. Some years ago, it was proposed to substitute the hyper-oxymuriate, now called chlorate of potassa, for nitre in the formation of gun-powder. As chlorate of potassa, when mixed with sulphur, &c. produces combustion by percussion, or by the contact of fire, this effect is attributed to the same cause,—the separation of oxygen, not from azote, but from the chlorine of the chloric acid, Hence, when that[8] salt is used in fire-works, the result of the combustion is similar to that in which nitre is employed; at least as regards the union of the oxygen with the elementary principles of the inflammable body. On this subject, we shall make some remarks hereafter. Nitrate of soda, a salt which contains nitric acid, and similar to saltpetre in that particular, has been recommended also for fire-works. It has, however, several objections. Our object in noticing it at this time is to remark, that, when it is so employed, its effect is the same as nitrate of potassa, or saltpetre, by furnishing oxygen as the supporter of combustion. See Nitrate of Soda.

We are of opinion, that many of the nitrates might be advantageously employed in the manufacture of fire-works. Some, as nitrate of strontian, communicate a red colour to flame, as the flame of alcohol. Nitrate of lime also might be used.

All nitrates, as well as the different hyperoxymuriates, or chlorates, contain oxygen as an essential ingredient in the acid of their respective salts, which is readily given up to inflammable substances.

When nitrates are employed for fire-works, they should be free from moisture, or water of crystallization, unless otherwise required. The presence of water may, in many cases, prove injurious to the composition; and, consequently, the effect in those instances, may be influenced by this circumstance. The composition of nitric acid, and the action of carbon in the decomposition of the nitrates, or salts formed by the union of nitric acid with sundry bases, will claim our attention in the article on gun-powder.

With respect to the production of colours, some remarks on this subject may be here added.

Speaking of colours, Haüy (Elementary Treatise of Natural Philosophy, trans. ii. p. 253.) takes into view their formation according to the Newtonian doctrine; and in a note by the translator, several instances are given of the change of colour by oxidizement and other processes. Iron when exposed to heat in contact with atmospheric air gradually absorbs oxygen, and changes its colour. The colours produced depend entirely on the quantity of oxygen, and on the absorption of some of the rays of light, and the reflection of others. See Iron. The tempering of steel instruments depends on this property, and also the blueing of sword blades, and many similar operations. The first impression of fire usually developes a blue colour; a second degree produces a yellow; and, if the oxidizement augments, the iron[9] becomes red. The major part of the metals present similar phenomena.

In vegetables, the blue colour is formed by fermentation; and many of these colours are susceptible of passing to red by a greater quantity of oxygen, as they depend on the absorption of oxygen. It is thus that the green fecula of indigo becomes blue; turnsol, red by air and acids; and the protoferrocyanate of iron, blue when exposed to the air.

When meat putrefies, the first degree of oxygenation decides the blue colour; the red soon succeeds as the process goes on. It would seem that the maximum of oxidation determines the reflection of rays of every kind, in the same proportions as subsist in solar light, of which we have many instances in combustion.

The flame of burning bodies exhibits the same phenomena. It is blue when the combination of oxygen is slow; red when it is stronger, and white when the oxygenation is complete.

These facts lead to the conclusion, that the combination of oxygen, and its proportions, give birth in bodies to the property of reflecting corresponding rays of light; but, since the combination of oxygen in different proportions ought to change the thickness and density of the component laminæ, and, consequently, to produce variations in the colours, this doctrine is not easily reconciled with the received theory.

By considering the temperature necessary to inflame different bodies; the nature of flame, and the relation between light and heat, which compose it; the caloric disengaged in a free state during the combustion of bodies, and the causes, which modify the appearance of flame,—we may be enabled to account for the phenomena already noticed. Thus, phosphorus at 150°, and sulphur at 550°, are said to take fire, and two acid products are formed; at 800°, hydrogen gas explodes with oxygen, and produces water; and, according to Ure's view, the flame of combustible bodies may in all cases be considered as the combustion of an explosive mixture of inflammable gas, or vapour, with air; and as to the change of quiescent into distributable heat, and the causes that modify combustion and flame, the facts on these heads are numerous and very important.

Sec. III. Remarks on the Nature of particular Compositions.

The spur fire, which was invented by the Chinese, but brought to perfection in Europe, is remarkably beautiful when employed in some particular parts of fire-works. This[10] fire was so named from the effect it produces, that of forming scintillations, resembling a shower, or drops of rain, or the rowel of a spur. The artificial flower pot is formed of this fire. The stars and pinks, which it produces, are said to be brilliant. The composition of spur fire being saltpetre, lampblack, and sulphur, in the proportions we shall give hereafter, is similar in fact to that of gunpowder; for the lampblack acts in the same manner as common charcoal. As the lampblack, however, is extremely fine, and of a purer quality, its action on that account may be more powerful. While one portion of it decomposes the nitric acid of the nitre, with the oxygen of which it forms carbonic acid; another portion is thrown off in actual combustion, which puts on the appearance we have mentioned. Lampblack, it is to be observed, is a very impalpable powder, and takes fire with more facility than pulverised charcoal.

The lampblack, therefore, is consumed both by the oxygen of the nitre, and the oxygen gas furnished by the atmospheric air. With respect to the sulphur, it facilitates the combustion, as it is more readily inflamed, and it forms in the process of combustion, sulphurous acid gas. Spur fire has been improved by the addition of steel filings: They produce very brilliant scintillations, in the combustion of which, oxide of iron is formed.

With respect to the composition of rockets, the materials of which are united in different proportions, we will remark at this time, that as mealed powder, saltpetre, and charcoal constitute their principal ingredients, the chemical effect is similar to that we have stated. The combustion of such mixtures is attributed to the same cause; for whether we consider the composition of gunpowder, or the extra addition of saltpetre and charcoal, or the substitution of nitre for the gunpowder, the action must be the same, and therefore the products of combustion, similar. The action, however, as the effect evidently shows, is affected by the proportion of the substances employed, and by other circumstances which we shall notice hereafter. The different appearances, therefore, are owing entirely to the composition, as in rocket stars, rains, gerbes, tourbillons, &c.

It may appear surprising, that the combustion of gunpowder with other substances, previously well rammed in cases, as in the rocket, will give to the case a momentum of great velocity and force. This motion is regulated by the balance of the rocket; and its power depends upon the size of the case, and the compactness of the composition. There is nothing new, however, in the fact; for it is perfectly famili[11]ar with every one, if we consider the recoil of a gun when fired, the powder having a resistance to overcome, as the ball, that the explosive effect of gunpowder is equal, and that the gases produced impel on all sides. Now the effect of a ball is as the difference of its weight with the weight of the gun; while the one being so much lighter is propelled forward with great celerity, and with a corresponding projectile force, the other suffers but little motion, which we term the recoil. The combustion of the materials, of which a rocket is composed, in a case, and in many fire-works where the cases are arranged on wheels, &c. which act on the rocket-principle, produces in like manner a force proportionate to the quantity of the material employed, and the manner it is driven in the case. The force in such instances is given to the rocket by the combustible substances; and the rocket itself when free, will ascend, or move in the direction required; or if small cases are fixed on wheels, which move on an axis, they communicate motion, as in the single vertical wheels, horizontal wheels, plural wheels, and the like, and may then be considered a moving power. That rockets are used as a missile weapon is well known. They were employed by the native troops of India against the British during the siege of Seringapatam in 1799. Mr. Congreve, the inventor of the war-rocket which bears his name, may have received his first idea of using rockets from this circumstance. This rocket will be described hereafter. The projectile force of the rocket is well calculated for the conveyance of case shot to great distances; because, as it proceeds, its velocity is accelerated instead of being retarded, as happens with every other projectile, while the average velocity of the shell is greater than that of the rocket only in the ratio of 9 to 8. The basis of this increase of power in the flight of rockets, induced Congreve to make a number of experiments, which resulted in their improvement, so far as they may be used of various calibres, either for explosion or conflagration, and armed both with shells and case shot. It may be sufficient to remark, that the 32 pr. rocket carcass, which has been used in bombardment, will range 3000 yards with the same quantity of combustible matter as that contained in the ten inch spherical carcass.

M. de Buffon, (Mémoires de l'Académie, 1740,) wrote an ingenious essay on sky rockets, in which he states the appendages which may be put to them.

If we inquire into the cause of the ascension of rockets, it will appear, that this apparently extraordinary effect, as[12] we have already remarked, is owing to the decomposition, and the consequent production and disengagement of a large quantity of gaseous fluid and caloric. The impelling power, as in the large Congreve rocket, of which we had occasion to speak, is regulated in proportion to its size, and the accuracy with which the materials have been driven.

The manner in which the flame, and, consequently, the gases are expelled from the orifice of a rocket, resembles the operation of an æolipile, which throws out the vapour of water, and sets in motion the air in its vicinity. As the more flexible must yield to the more solid body, so, in this respect, the gases produced are repelled by the air in contact with the orifice of the rocket. Thus it follows, that the rocket displaces a volume of air of a much greater weight than itself. The rocket then has upon the air, reasoning a priori, the same effect as the oars of a boat have upon water; and hence, the greater the volume of fire from the rocket, the greater is its velocity and ascent. The impelling force also increases as it consumes, being a uniformly accelerated motion.

It also appears, that a rocket sent in an horizontal direction will not pass over so great a distance, as when its motion is vertical; for, a rocket, directed in a line parallel to the horizon, passes through a medium of equal density, but if directed perpendicular to the horizon, from the moment it leaves the ground till it arrives at its greatest height, it penetrates and passes through an atmosphere whose density is continually decreasing, and consequently its impelling force meets with less resistance. But when we consider the increase of the force of the rocket, there is no comparison between that force, and the diminution of the density of the air.

From these premises it follows, that the ascension of rockets of all kinds is governed by one principle, namely, the disengagement of gaseous fluids and caloric, which displacing an equal volume of atmospheric air, operates by mutual contact.

Since, however, the air is heavier than the gases produced by the rocket, as the latter are greatly expanded, it is evident, that the gases will ascend; their specific gravity at the time of dilatation being less than that of the air.

The gases proceeding from the interior of the rocket, act therefore upon the air in the immediate vicinity of the orifice, and the rocket is consequently propelled, the stick guiding it in the direction given to it. If it were not for the rocket-stick or balance, its direction would be neither regu[13]lar nor certain. Considering then, that, by the rocket-stick, the centre of gravity is changed from the rocket itself to the stick, the motion is regulated in its perpendicular flight by the stick. The rocket-stick must be always of a proportionate length and weight to the rocket.

The motion given to rockets is always to be considered, for this depends upon the direction at first imparted; but the force of ascension is regulated by the size, and other circumstances which we have mentioned.

Assuming the principle of constant force acting upon the rocket, its velocity will increase with the time, and will be as the squares of the time, according to the principles of uniform accelerated motion; but if the force varies from uniformity, then the velocity and spaces will proportionably vary.

As action and re-action must be equal, the repulsion produced by the action of the gases upon the air is equal to the force impelling the rocket. The constant action produces equal acceleration of the motion.

On the subject of the condensation and dilatation of air, and the different pressures at a mean temperature, which is more or less connected with this inquiry, the reader may consult with advantage, the work of Mr. Biot, (Traité de Physique, &c. tome i, p. 110, and 141.) The conclusions of Mr. Robins on the gaseous products of gunpowder, and the elasticity of those products, may be seen by referring to the article on gunpowder.

It must be confessed, that the theory of rockets differs in many essential particulars from that of the usual projectiles; for the motion of rockets is more complicated than that of common projectiles, and is described to partake of all the anomalies that attend the accelerated motion arising from the rocket composition, and the uniform motion of the rocket-case, after the composition is expended. It is a fact, which appears to be established, that little or no advantage has yet been gained from the experiments that have been made with cannon, even where the angle of elevation, and the initial velocity of the ball were both accurately known. It seems totally useless to look for mathematical investigations, with respect to determining the ranges, &c. of military rockets; because, if we could determine, with the greatest accuracy, the point, position, and velocity of the rocket, at the moment when the composition was expended, the remaining part of its track would still be subject to all the inequalities attending on common projectiles. During the burning of the rocket, however, its motion might, by a series of experiments, be reduced to precise rules. As the principles of gunnery,[14] or rather of projectiles, involve a number of collateral circumstances, such as the exact momentum of any given ball when projected with a given velocity, and from a given distance, the subject is still not fully settled; but they are so far conclusive, that the resistance of the air to the same ball is as some function of the velocity. The remarks of Dr. Hutton on this head would be too lengthy. A rocket, however, is very different. The very medium, in this case, is the principal agent in producing the motion; and being enabled to ascertain all the successive energies of the propelling power, and the resisting force, we may thus far determine correctly. It is suggested, that a rocket fixed to the ballistic pendulum would determine its whole energy; but, in order to make the experiment more perfect, it is proposed to attach it to a wheel, or revolving body, and then to measure its successive energies by the motion of some weight attached to the revolving axis of the machine. It is worthy of remark, that it is impossible to accommodate or determine the motion of rockets by other projectiles; and, therefore, to ascertain their momentum, such a contrivance would be eminently useful.

Mr. Moore of the Royal Military Academy, Great Britain, (Treatise on the motion and flight of rockets,) who seems to have adopted the hypothesis of Dr. Desaguliers, respecting the momentum of the ignited composition, has given a variety of problems relative to the motion and flight of rockets in non-resisting mediums, some of which we purpose to notice.

Mariotte and Desaguliers have given two distinct theories of the motion of rockets. The latter ascribes their motion to the momentum of combustion, and the former to the elastic nature of the gaseous fluid, generated by the combustion, and the resistance of air. The observations of Desaguliers are the following: "Conceive the rocket to have no vent at the choke, and to be set on fire, the consequence will be, either that the rocket will burst in the weakest place, or if all the parts be equally strong, and be able to sustain the impulse of the flame, the rocket would burn out immoveable. Now, as the force of the flame is equable, suppose its action downwards, or that upwards, to lift 40 pounds; as these forces are equal, but their directions contrary, they will destroy each other's action. Imagine then the rocket opened at the choke; by this means, the action of the flame downwards is taken away, and there remains a force equal to forty pounds, acting upwards, to carry up the rocket and stick." This theory, however ingenious, is not altogether true; for it is asserted on the contrary, that the action of the flame or gas within the rocket, when closed, as supposed above, is con[15]ceived to arise wholly from the elastic nature of the gas, and the reaction it experiences against the ends and sides of the rocket-case; the whole of which ceases as soon as a free vent is given to the flame; and, therefore, if a rocket could be fixed in a vacuum, as the flame would, in that case, experience no resistance, there would be no reaction, and consequently, no motion would ensue. Some experiments, analogous to this position, have been made. We may merely add, with respect to Mariotte's theory, that he attributes the motion of the rocket to the resistance and reaction of the air, in consequence of which the propelling force will decrease as the velocity increases, owing to the partial vacuum left behind the rocket in its flight; so that the correct solution of the problem necessarily involves the integration of partial differences of the highest orders.

We may remark also, from the premises already established, that the first motion of the rocket, like all other motions not produced by a great momentary impulse, is slow; and before the stick is clear of the flame, gravity has been acting upon the rocket, and depressed it below its natural position, while the stick is prevented from being equally depressed, by the top of the frame; so that the angle of projection is in fact considerably less than the angle of the frame, or slope of the rocket's first position. In consequence of this, the rocket has the appearance of falling the moment after projection; and, for this reason also, the angle for producing the greatest range of a rocket exceeds very considerably that which gives the extreme range of a shell projected from a mortar. There are various propositions given by Mr. Moore respecting rockets, but to give the calculus, &c. would take up more room than we could appropriate to this abstract question. The nature of these propositions, however, may be given in a few words, viz: The strength or force of the gas from the inflamed composition of a rocket being given, as also the weight and quantity of the composition, the time of its burning, and the weight and dimensions of the case and stick, to find the height to which it will ascend, when projected perpendicularly upwards. After making the necessary calculation, he concludes by observing, that, having determined the height of the rocket, and its velocity, when the composition is just consumed, it follows that its whole height may be determined in the usual manner by the known formula, for the ascent and descent of heavy bodies. Another proposition is that of determining the path of a rocket near the earth's surface, neglecting the resistance of the air; and among others, for finding the horizontal range of a rocket,[16] the angle of elevation, and the time the composition is on fire, being given.

The observations of Mr. Peyre, (Le Mouvement Igné,) are confined principally to the effects of gunpowder; and although applied to the use of gunpowder, and the theory of its explosive effects, yet there is nothing in immediate relation with this subject. The generation of gaseous fluid, and its impelling power, and the consequent recoil of pieces, predicated in fact on the ingenious experiments and conclusions of Mr. Robins, may furnish some data on this head. But the principles of accelerated motion, on which the effective power of war-rockets depends, this accelerated motion being no other than the acquired velocity of their recoil, necessarily involves a question of a different kind from that of common projectiles.

The caduceus rocket has not much more than half the power of ascension as the single rockets; because, being composed of two rockets placed at an angle of 90 degrees, with the usual counterpoise, (the stick), it forms in its flight a serpentine motion resembling two spiral lines, or double worm; and although by reason of the stick it ascends vertically, yet the great resistance it meets with from the air, in consequence of this motion, causes its flight to be considerably retarded.

On the contrary, when rockets are fixed one on the top of another, called towering rockets, their effect is not at all diminished; for they experience no additional resistance, as the small rocket is placed in the head of the large one; and when the latter arrives at the maximum of elevation, it communicates fire to the former, which then rises as far beyond the first, if not higher, in consequence of the pressure of the atmosphere being less, as it would, if discharged by itself on the ground. Sky rockets, however, which are merely placed on one stick, do not, unless so required, act in this manner. Although two, three, or more, may be so arranged, yet the intention is nothing more than to combine their effect, so that their tails may appear as one stream of fire. Nevertheless, they may be so arranged, as that when one is consumed, another may take its place, and produce a new volume of fire, and, in this case, they would mount to a great height.

Tourbillons, usually called the common or table tourbillons, which receive their name from the whirling motion they take in their flight, produce also, by the arrangement of their cases, and the cross stick which serves as a balance, a horizontal and rotary motion; and while one part of the fire serves to elevate them, another part, issuing in a horizontal direction,[17] but at opposite sides and extremities, gives to the tourbillon a wheeling motion. The mosaic tourbillons are of a different kind, and intended for another effect. Tourbillons of this kind preserve a regular and constant motion.

The mosaic candle owes its effect, in a great measure, to the rocket composition. Using alternately, composition, meal-powder, and a star, ramming the composition sufficiently, but not so as to break the stars, a case is formed, the effect of which is brilliant and striking. Besides the rapid combustion of the composition, the stars, when the fire comes to the meal-powder, are thrown out by it in succession, and to the height of one hundred and more feet. We have also, in this instance, the effect of the rocket composition, and that of gunpowder; the last of which, acting in the case in the same manner as powder in a musket on a ball, throws the stars to a great height. Hence the effect is varied according to the manner of loading the case; and by employing alternately the substances we have mentioned, the effects follow in regular succession. The use of gunpowder in this manner, is strikingly shown in many other fire-works. When, for instance, stars, serpents, &c. forming the furniture of a rocket, are to be dispersed, gunpowder is put in the head or conical cap of the rocket, and fire is communicated to it at the moment the rocket has arrived at its extreme elevation. In the bursting of paper shells, the same effect ensues, and the different substances contained in the shell are dispersed in every direction.

Balloons are nothing more than shells made either of paper, or wood turned hollow. These balloons are discharged from mortars, or fire-pots, sometimes called pots of ordnance. They are merely cylinders of various diameters, made of paper and very thick, or of metal, and are furnished at their bottom with a conical cavity lined with copper, designed to hold the charge of powder. When the balloon is filled, (see Balloons), it is introduced into the mortar over the charge, and being furnished with a fuse as in other shells, takes fire the moment the powder is inflamed. According to the quantity of powder made use of, so will be the height of ascension. By determining the ascension, and the time required for the fuse to burn, and communicate fire to the shell, we may fix the precise moment for its explosion. The powder contained in the shell is sufficient only to burst it, and disperse its contents. (See Mortars, Fire-pots, and pots of Aigrette.)

A balloon will contain more stars, serpents, &c. than the head of an ordinary rocket, and the effect which they pro[18]duce, must of course be more striking. The Congreve rocket, calculated as it is to convey carcass composition, balls, grenades, &c. if furnished with stars, crackers, &c. would produce an effect equal, if not superior to the balloon.

We remarked, that, in common sky rockets, the charges consist of a mixture of gunpowder, saltpetre, and charcoal, with occasionally other additions, as steel-filings. Rocket-stars, on the contrary, are usually formed of mealed powder, saltpetre, sulphur, and sometimes other substances according to the colour of the flame required. Thus, for the white star, composition oil of spike, (a preparation of Barbadoes tar, and spirit of turpentine), and camphor are employed; the camphor giving to the flame a white appearance. The blue stars owe their colour to sulphur, which is in the proportion of one to four of the meal-powder; the variegated stars have the same materials, with sulphur vivum, and camphor; and the brilliant stars, common stars, and a variety of others, we shall mention in their proper places, are all formed by the addition of sundry substances.

The variety of rains, as gold rain, silver rain, &c. are differently prepared. Besides saltpetre, meal-powder, and sulphur, gold rain contains in its composition the filings of brass, saw-dust, and pulverized glass. In this instance, the saw-dust communicates colour, while the brass and the glass are thrown out, the former partly consumed, and the latter partially fused by the intense heat. The same effect may be produced by meal-powder, saltpetre, and charcoal, or saltpetre, sulphur, antimony, brass filings, saw-dust, and pulverized glass. Here the antimony, as well as the brass, communicates the golden colour. (See antimony.) Silver rain is generally formed of saltpetre, sulphur, meal-powder, antimony, and sal prunelle, but without saw-dust; the antimony communicating silver brilliancy to the flame. It may also be formed, by employing, in given proportions, saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal, the particular effect depending upon the proportions; or by using antimony in lieu of the charcoal, or in the place of the antimony, steel-filings. Whether antimony or steel-filings are used, the effect of their combustion is the same, forming in the one instance, an oxide of antimony, and in the other, an oxide of iron. Both gold and silver rain is employed chiefly for sky-rockets. As to the colours required, they may be formed of other substances.

The charges for water-rockets are also various. In some of which, besides the usual ingredients, (meal-powder, salt[19]petre, and sulphur,) sea-coal, steel-filings, saw-dust, &c. enter into their composition.

As to the different compositions, it will be sufficient to remark, that for wheels, fixed cases, sun cases, gerbes, Chinese fire, tourbillons, water balloons, water squibs, serpents, port-fires, cones, globes, air-balloon fuses, fire-pumps, and many others to be noticed hereafter, the basis of them is either gunpowder or saltpetre, and sulphur and charcoal, with or without additions. With respect to the composition of the stars of different colours, it is to be observed, that the particular colour is given by pulverized cast-iron, steel-filings, camphor, amber, antimony, perchloride of mercury, (corrosive sublimate), ivory-dust, copper, frankincense, &c. To produce tails of sparks, pitch or rosin is added. Stars which produce some sparks are usually made by using gum water in mixing the composition. The gum appears to produce a separation of the inflammable substances, and, as it is not combustible, to check, as it were, the rapidity of the combustion. In some preparations, also, isinglass or fish-glue is used in solution. This, no doubt, acts in the same manner, as well as to give firmness to the composition; but its solution is also used as a vehicle. On the same principle also, we learn the use of caustic ley, quicklime, &c. in preparing match-rope. After soaking the cord in a solution of nitre, it is afterwards dipped into ley, which is nothing more than a solution of potash rendered caustic by means of quicklime. The potash evidently checks the combustion. The formulæ for slow match, are, however, various. In the match-wood, also, prepared from the wood or bark of the linden, the wood is usually first soaked in a solution of saltpetre, and afterwards in a solution of acetate or sugar of lead, &c. For the same purpose, nitrate of copper is recommended. For stars of a yellow colour, besides gum arabic, or gum tragacanth, saltpetre, and sulphur, the addition of powdered glass, orpiment, (sulphuret of arsenic), and white amber, are occasionally made. The colour is owing to the amber and the orpiment, which have the property of communicating it to flame. We may observe, generally, that the colours produced by different compositions, is a subject of importance to the pyrotechnist. He should know the properties of each substance, and the effect of each ingredient; and, with respect to their action, be able to foretell the appearance of the flame, and other circumstances connected with the art. As a general example, we may state, that sulphur gives a blue; camphor, a white, or pale colour; saltpetre, a clear white yellow; amber, a colour inclining to yellow; muriate of am[20]monia, (sal ammoniac), a green; antimony, a reddish; rosin, a copper colour, and Greek pitch, a bronze, or a colour between red and yellow. In using these substances, the following remarks may be useful;—that for producing a white flame, the saltpetre should be the chief part; for blue, the sulphur; for flame inclining to red, the saltpetre should be the principal ingredient, using at the same time, antimony and pitch. (See matches of different colours, in Part ii.)

Coloured flame may be produced by various other substances, many of which are expensive, and therefore could not be employed economically. Thus, in fire-works made with hydrogen gas, or inflammable air, which have a pleasing effect, by forcing the gas, either from a bladder, oiled-silk bag, or gas-holder, through a variety of revolving jets, which are so arranged as to exhibit stars, or through pipes furnished with small apertures, &c. to resemble different standing figures,—the effect may be varied by previously mixing the gas with the vapour of ether, and other substances, which communicate to the flame, particular colours, which, in a darkened room, are extremely brilliant. Cartwright's fire-works are formed in this manner. (See fire-works with inflammable air.)

Muriate of strontian, mixed with alcohol, or spirit of wine, will give a carmine-red flame. For this experiment, one part of the muriate is added to three or four parts of alcohol. Muriate of lime produces, with alcohol, an orange-coloured flame. Nitrate of copper produces an emerald-green flame. Common salt and nitre, with alcohol, give a yellow flame. (See Illuminations and Transparencies.)

In addition to the facts already stated, it may be proper to observe, that the ingredients employed to show in sparks, which are rammed in choaked cases, are various, according to the colours required; as black, white, gray, and red. The black charges are composed of meal-powder and charcoal; the white, of saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal; the gray, of meal powder, saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal; and the red, of meal-powder, charcoal, and saw-dust. These are considered regular or set charges, to which we may add two others, called compound and brilliant charges. The compound charges contain a variety of substances which afford sparks; and hence, besides the usual inflammable bodies, saw-dust, antimony, steel and brass-filings, are used. The brilliant fires owe their particular effect to the presence of steel-filings, or pulverized cast-iron. Iron, in any of its states, when minutely divided, has the same effect.

Quick match is usually formed of cotton, by soaking it in[21] a solution of nitre, and adding meal-powder. A solution of isinglass is sometimes used. The etoupille of the French is of the same nature. The manner, quick and slow match, &c. are prepared, with the various formulæ, will be considered under their respective heads. Touch paper, for capping serpents, crackers, &c. will also be noticed. The pyrotechnical spunge owes its inflammability to nitre.

In the various composition of aquatic fire-works, although more care and attention are required, it is to be observed, that, in forming water-rockets, horizontal wheels, water-mines, fire-globes, water-balloons, water-squibs, water-fire-fountains, and the like, substances are generally used along with the usual ingredients, which, under particular circumstances, may be said to repel, as well as resist the action of the water; and in this particular they resemble the celebrated Greek fire, of which we shall speak hereafter. This remark, however, applies only to certain works. After the rockets have been filled, their ends are dipped in melted rosin or sealing-wax, or secured with grease.

Fire-works, usually exhibited in rooms, are made with odoriferous gums and perfumes, and hence are called odoriferous fire-works. We may remark, that the odour or perfume is given by a variety of substances; for these, at a high temperature, are partly consumed, and partly evaporated. Thus camphor, yellow amber, flowers of benzoin, myrrh, frankincense, cedar-raspings, and the essential oils, particularly of bergamot, are employed for this purpose. Scented fire-works are of the same character. The Italians and the French, who have made more experiments in Pyrotechny, than other nations, have improved odoriferous fire-works. In these compositions, they also employ storax, calamite, gum benzoin, and other substances. Scented fire was greatly in use in Egypt, Rome, and Athens, at their fetes and public ceremonies. The unpleasant smell which gunpowder, sulphur, &c. occasion in a confined apartment, has induced the modern artificers to add sundry odoriferous substances to their pyro-mixtures. On this subject, it will be sufficient to observe, that the scented vase, which was in use at Athens, contained the following substances: storax, benzoin, frankincense, camphor, gum juniper in grains, and charcoal of the willow. It does not appear that nitre was employed. The custom of burning frankincense before the altar, is indeed very ancient; for, in the primitive temple at Jerusalem, the custom was adopted by the priests in the Sanctum Sanctorum, and is continued by the Greeks and Armenians, the Jews, the Turks, the Per[22]sians, (especially the followers of Zoroaster), preserve this custom. The Holy Fire of the latter is nothing more than the inflamed carburetted hydrogen gas, which comes from the naphtha ground at Baku.

Besides the use of nitre in pyrotechnical compositions, as it forms an essential part in all of them, there is another salt we had occasion to notice, of which an account will be given hereafter, that affords a variety of amusing experiments. This salt is the hyperoxymuriate or chlorate of potassa. Although it has neither been used for fire-works on an extensive scale, nor does it enter into any of the compositions usually made for exhibition, yet its effect is not the less amusing. Some general idea may be had of its effect, by stating a few experiments. If a mixture of this salt and white sugar be made in a mortar, and the mixture laid on a slab or tile, and a string wetted with sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol), be brought in contact with it, or a drop or two of the acid be let fall upon it, a vivid combustion will take place. In this experiment, the acid decomposes the salt, and the oxygen unites with the carbon and hydrogen of the sugar, and forms carbonic acid and water. The same salt, rubbed in a mortar with sulphur, will produce a crackling noise resembling that of a whip; and if a mixture of the two be struck with a hammer, the percussion will cause a loud detonation. The same thing happens when phosphorus is used, but the detonation is more violent. Various other experiments may be made with it. It forms the principal part of the match, called the pocket lights. These are made, in the first place, by dipping the wood previously cut in splints in melted sulphur, and afterwards in a mixture of this salt with sugar, which is moistened with water. The match is then dried. When used, it is dipped in sulphuric acid. The red colour, usually given to the match, is formed by mixing with the composition some vermillion. Another application of the same principle, is the firing of cannon. For this purpose, after the tube is filled with powder, a covering of the same mixture is applied when mixed with water. It is then dried. When the tube is put in the vent, a drop of sulphuric acid will inflame it, and consequently discharge the gun. This salt also, when mixed with sulphur, may be used to fire fowling pieces, provided the lock be so constructed, as in a late invention, that it acts by percussion. (See Thenard's Priming powder.)

The Rev. Alexander Forsyth of Alexander Forsyth of Belhelvie, in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, took out a patent for a new kind of gun-lock, to be used without a flint, and has contrived to inflame pow[23]der merely by percussion. The powder employed for priming, consists of chlorate of potassa and sulphur. The gun-lock is calculated for firing cannon as well as musquetry; it is contrived to hold forty primings of such powder; and the act of raising the cock primes the piece. Each charge of priming is supposed to contain one-eighth of a grain of the salt. There are other substances which also produce fire by percussion. The fulminating silver, mixed with any substance, or used by itself, will detonate by percussion. It should be used with great caution. A grain or two will explode with great violence. (See Detonating Works, Waterloo crackers, &c.)

There are several other metallic preparations which detonate violently, such as the fulminating gold, fulminating mercury, &c. all of which must be used with extreme caution. (See the respective articles.)

Sec. IV. Of Illuminations.

Although nothing of much importance can be said on the subject of illumination, yet at the same time, as it is connected with some remarks we will hereafter offer, it may be proper to observe, that the practice of illuminating, as well as the exhibition of fire-works in public rejoicings, has been in use for many years. The former indeed has been customary for many centuries. We have, however, appropriated an article to the manner of forming illuminations and transparencies, and also on imitative fire-works.

Illuminations, whether with lamps, candles, flambeaux, &c. may be rendered more impressive from the manner of their arrangement. In some instances different coloured flames have been used; and the effect in this case is more grand and beautiful.

The public lighting of cities on festivals, and particularly on joyful occasions, called illuminations, is of great antiquity. Indeed, illuminations are a general expression of the public feeling, and should, on important occasions, be encouraged. Victories gained over an enemy by the army or navy are subjects of rejoicing. While, in such cases, illuminations may be viewed as an expression of the feelings of the people, they serve moreover to stimulate, in the spirit of the amor patriæ, the future actions of the patriot and the soldier; and while such rejoicings are demonstrative of victory, they are equally expressive of that virtuous feeling, of which every one must partake, on the return of an honourable peace.

What could have been more impressive than the brilliant[24] spectacle exhibited in Paris in 1739, on the return of peace? Besides illuminations, the fire-works on that occasion were truly magnificent. The same may be said of those at Pont Neuf, and those at Versailles in the same year. We shall have occasion to speak of them, when we come to the arrangement or the order of fire-works for exhibition.

The Egyptians at an early period, made use of illuminations, and particularly at a festival, which is mentioned by the Greek authors. During the festival, as Herodotus says, lamps were placed before all the houses throughout the country, and kept burning the whole night.

During the festival of the Jews, called festum encæniorum, the feast of the Dedication of the Temple, the lamps were lighted before each of the houses, and the festival continued eight days. Illuminations were also used in Greece, according to a passage in Æschylus. When games were exhibited in the night-time at Rome, the forum was lighted. Caligula, on a similar occasion, caused the city to be illuminated. In honour of the great orator Cicero, as he was returning home at night, after the defeat of Cataline's conspiracy, lamps and torches were lighted in all the streets. Byzantium, afterwards Constantinople, was ordered to be illuminated with lamps and wax candles on an Easter eve, in the time of Constantine.

That this custom was prevalent among the christians in the first century, is evident from many authors. Professor Beckman, in his History of Inventions, vol. iii, p. 383, says, that "the fathers of the first century frequently inveigh against the christians, because, to please the heathens, they often illuminated their houses, on idolatrous festivals, in a more elegant manner than they. This they considered as a species of idolatry. That the houses of the ancients were illuminated on birth-days, by suspending lamps from chains, is too well known to require any proof."

At Damascus, the Turks always keep a lamp burning over the tomb, as it is called, of Ananias, which they much reverenced. It is said to be in the same house in which St. Paul lodged with Judas. (See Maundrel's Travels from Aleppo to Jerusalem.)

Lamps, according to Dr. Pococke, are kept continually burning in the Jewish synagogue at Old Cairo, said to have been built about sixteen hundred years ago. (See Pococke's Travels through Egypt.)

In Persia, lamps are kept burning in consequence of some religious notion, and particularly at the sepulchre of Seid Ibraham. (See Travels through Muscovy into Persia.)

[25]

A lighted lamp is frequently put up in Persia as a mark to shoot at. To be a good shot, the marksman must extinguish it. At the celebration of the feast called Ashur or Ten, from its lasting ten days, which is kept in memory of Hossein, the youngest son of Hali, the Persians make use of rags dipped in suet and naphtha, and burn them in lamps; and their courts are lighted up with thousands of lamps, the light from which is increased by as many more lanterns made of paper, that are fastened to cords drawn across the court.

The Chinese, in celebrating their solemn feasts, especially on the 15th day of the first month, called the Feast of the lanterns, from the multitude and grandeur of the lamps they exhibit in the evening, are remarkable for the splendour of their exhibitions. We are informed, (A Description of China, &c.), that many of the grandees, retrenching every year something from their tables, apparel, and equipage, to show the greater magnificence in the lanterns, used on this occasion, expend the sum of 2000 crowns. The largest are about twenty feet in diameter, and are lighted by an immense number of wax candles and lamps; but those that are most common, are of a middling size. These are generally composed of six faces, or panes, each of which has a frame of varnished wood, adorned with gildings four feet high, a foot and a half broad, covered on the inside with fine transparent silk, on which are painted flowers, trees, rocks, and sometimes human figures. The painting is very curious, the colours lively, and the wax candles give the painting a beautiful splendour. These six pannels joined together, compose a hexagon, surmounted at the extremities by six carved figures, that form its crown. Around it are hung broad strings of satin, of all colours, with other silken ornaments, that fall upon the angles without hiding the light of the pictures. The feast of the lanterns is also celebrated by bonfires and fire-works.

Candles are also used for the same purpose. Chandeliers, differently made, and holding a greater or smaller number of candles, add greatly to the effect.

The candles used by the natives of Otaheite are curiously made. According to Cooke, (First Voyage, &c.), they have candles made of a kind of oily nut, which they stick one over another upon a skewer thrust through the middle of them. The upper one being lighted, burns down to the second, at the same time consuming that part of the skewer which goes through it; the second, taking fire, burns in the same manner down to the third, and so of the rest. These candles give a[26] tolerable light, and some of them will burn a considerable time.

The lighting of streets, Beckman considers in some respects to be a modern invention, and after quoting various authorities concludes, that, of modern cities, Paris was the first that followed the example of the ancients by lighting its streets. It appears, therefore, that the practice of illuminating was reserved by the ancients for some great occasion, that lighting of the streets was more or less partial, and confined to particular places, and that it was not general without some particular occasion called for it. (See Illuminations.)

Kircher, the German philosopher, had a wick made of amianthus, which burnt for two years without injury, and was at last destroyed by accident.[8] The Greenland stone flax, which is the same as amianthus, the Rev. Mr. Edge says is used in Greenland for lamp wicks, and burn without being in the least wasted, whilst supplied with oil or fat. Ellis (Voyage for the Discovery of a North-West Passage), found the mountain flax, (asbestus), among other minerals, on the Resolution Islands, inhabited by the Esquimaux, which is used for similar purposes. We may remark here, that the Esquimaux use stone for lamps, which they hollow out, and, according to circumstances, use also dried goose dung for wick.

Sec. V. Of some of the Feats or Performances by Fire.

We introduce this subject to show, that certain kinds of fire-works have been employed for the purpose of deceiving the ignorant, and amusing the better informed part of mankind. Many of the tricks of jugglers and slight-of-hand men, and the performances of certain rites, particularly by the ancient magi, and pagan priests, come under this head. Sundry[27] substances, in connection with artificial fire, have been employed by persons of this description. It is true, our account of them is rather imperfect. Had the works of Celsius, which he wrote against the ancient magi, been preserved, we would, no doubt, have been better acquainted with the art of the ancient conjurors and jugglers.

Professor Beckman has endeavoured to trace the origin of the necromantic art; but although of opinion that it is very ancient, and founded in superstition and unnatural causes, he is of opinion, that the works of Celsius, which are lost, were full on the subject, and for that reason our account must be imperfect.

Plain common sense, but with enlightened reason, has alone convinced mankind of the follies of older generations, and of relying on superstitious ceremonies, or believing in miracles, exorcism, conjuration, necromancy, sorcery, or witchcraft.

The torch of reason, and experimental philosophy have dispelled the clouds of ignorance and superstition; and men, becoming more enlightened as they progress in the investigation of truth, are no longer under the influence of false doctrines, or led away by a bigoted priesthood. Philosophical experiments, the various optical illusions, the effects of electricity, magnetism, &c. are founded on immutable truths, which become the more familiar as we progress in science.

Truth, however, although elicited by the genius of great men, who have lived in every age, was suffered to be brought to the rack; because it either militated against the views of the priesthood, and enlightened the people, or curtailed the ecclesiastical power and authority of the church.

Because Anaxagoras taught that the sun and stars were not deities, but masses of corruptible matter, he was tried and condemned in Greece. Accusations of a similar nature contributed to the death of Socrates. Copernicus, in consequence of the threats of bigots and the fear of persecution, was prevented from publishing, during his life time, his discovery of the true system of the world; and it is well known, that the great Galileo was imprisoned a year, and then obliged to renounce the motion of the earth, because he asserted it. In 1742, a commentary on Newton's Principia, one of the first productions of human genius, was not allowed to be printed at Rome, in consequence of its promulgation of this doctrine; and, in the true spirit of priest-craft, the commentators were obliged to prefix to their work a[28] declaration, that on this point, they submitted to the decisions of the supreme pontiffs! Such are the results of bigotry, ignorance, superstition, and especially of civil and ecclesiastical governments, that consider learning a curse, and ignorance a blessing! Happily for the people of the United States, their co-equal rights and enlightened reason, will ever guarantee them against tyranny on the one hand, and fanaticism on the other. Superstition has always been an engine of oppression, and wherever it prevails, the powerful are sure to make use of it to oppress and destroy the weak.

Another instance of the assumed prerogative of the holy fathers may be found in their conduct towards the house of Medici; for the pontiffs, it is known, induced the house of Medici, by granting it the cardinalship, to suppress the academy del Cimento. The reason of this step is obvious to all; for they were sensible, that, if the people became once enlightened, they would lose their weight, their influence, and authority. But as jugglers are conscious of their gross deceptions, working on the imagination and credulity of the multitude, they in this respect appear at least to know themselves. Like the juggler mentioned in Xenophon, who requested the gods to allow him to remain in places, where there was much money and abundance of simpletons, they acted as the prototype. We might enumerate, if it were not irrelevant to our subject, a number of facts concerning these impostors.[9]

[29]

The miracles wrought by Moses, as recorded in the books of Exodus, were, we have reason to believe, by the immediate command of a supreme power. When Moses had commissioned Aaron (Exodus, chap. vii, verse 9, 10, &c.) to be a prophet, Aaron took a rod and cast it before Pharaoh and his servants, and it became a serpent; but it seems, however, that Pharaoh called the wise men and the sorcerers, called the magicians of Egypt, who performed the same thing with their enchantments; "for they cast down every man his rod, and they became serpents: but Aaron's rod swallowed up their rods." It appears that on another occasion, the waters were turned into blood by smiting them with the rod; "and the magicians of Egypt did so with their enchantments." When Aaron was commanded to stretch forth his hand with his rod over the streams, &c. frogs appeared upon the land, and the magicians did so likewise; but when vermin were brought forth, by smiting the land, the magicians were unsuccessful, and said unto Pharaoh, "This is the finger of God." In the continuation of the plague, Moses and Aaron were commanded to take the ashes of the furnace, before Pharaoh, and sprinkle them up towards Heaven; and it became a hail on man and beast, but the magicians were affected, and could not stand before Moses. When Moses stretched forth his rod towards heaven "hail, and fire mingled with hail," came down; and on another occasion, they brought forth locusts. When this plague ceased, Moses caused darkness to prevail.

We will merely observe, that, with regard to the magi of Egypt, who it is known possessed all the learning of the day, and were celebrated in after ages for superior wisdom, so much so that many of the Grecians resorted there to be initiated into their mysteries,—they were of a different description from those who really worked miracles, according to divine inspiration. Hence we find, that, although distinct in their character, the magicians of Egypt pretended to perform certain rites, and to work upon the feelings of the people. Their initiary process, which the Pythagoreans in many respects pursued, and traces of which are extant in the order of[30] free-masonry, was merely intended to preserve their knowledge within the pale of, and veiled in, hieroglyphic mystery, which none but the initiated could understand. Priestley, in his Institutes of Moses, points out the difference between the magi, so called, and the rites and ceremonies of the ancient Hebrews. But the imposition practised on mankind, even in modern times, aided by engines of the most abominable kind, as instruments of torture, in the inquisitorial tribunals of Portugal and Spain, are sufficient of themselves to call down the vengeance of impartial justice.

That the magicians were conscious of their inability to work miracles, is evident from their own declaration; for, after vermin had been brought forth by Moses and Aaron, they endeavoured to do the same, and being unsuccessful declared, that this was the finger of God; and many other instances are recorded of their attempts being altogether abortive. It appears also, that at first they believed they were able to perform all that Moses had done; and Pharaoh himself, by calling them together for that purpose, seemed to be of the same opinion, until he and his servants were finally convinced that Moses and Aaron wrought such miracles by inspiration. There can be no relation whatever between Moses and the magicians; for although he was, if we may judge from biblical history, acquainted with all the knowledge of the magicians, his mission was altogether of a different character. Many of the modern Greek and Armenian priests, in their celebration of the holy fire, palm upon their credulous followers, a belief, that they possess the power of working miracles, as will appear from the account we shall give of them. We will not enlarge on this subject at present, but pass on to consider the more common performances, which have excited the wonder and admiration of mankind.

The deception of breathing out flames, which excites the astonishment of the ignorant, is very ancient. When the slaves of Sicily, about two centuries ago, made a formidable insurrection, and avenged themselves in a cruel manner for the severities which they had suffered, there was among them a Syrian named Eunus, a man of great craft and courage, who, having passed through many scenes of life, had become acquainted with a variety of arts. He pretended to have immediate communication with the gods; was the oracle and leader of his fellow slaves; and, as is usual on such occasions, confirmed his divine mission by miracles. When, heated by enthusiasm, he was desirous of inspi[31]ring his followers with courage, he breathed flames or sparks among them from his mouth while he was addressing them. We are told by historians, that, for this purpose, he pierced a nut shell at both ends, and, having filled it with some burning substance, put it into his mouth and breathed through it. Some affirm, that he used tow previously soaked in a solution of saltpetre. The deception at present is much better performed. The juggler rolls together some flax or hemp; sets it on fire; and suffers it to burn till it is nearly consumed; he then rolls round it, while burning, some more flax, and by these means the fire may be retained in it a long time. When he wishes to exhibit, he slips the ball into his mouth and breathes through it; which again revives the fire, so that a number of weak sparks proceed from it; and the performer sustains no hurt, provided he inspire the air not through the mouth but the nostrils.

By this art, the rabbi Bar-Cacheba, in the reign of the emperor Hadrian, made the credulous Jews believe, that he was the hoped for Messias, and two centuries after, the emperor Constantius was thrown into great terror, when Valentian informed him, that he had seen one of the body guards breathing out fire and flames in the evening.

It appears evident from the writings of Herodotus, that the ancients possessed a knowledge of attracting lightning, or the electric fluids with pointed instruments made of iron. He informs us, that the Thracians disarmed heaven of its thunder-bolts, by discharging arrows into the air; and the Hyperboreans by darting into the clouds, pikes headed with pieces of sharp pointed iron.

Pliny speaks of a process, by which Porsena caused fire from the heavens to fall upon a monster which ravaged his country. He mentions also, that Numa Pompilius, and Tullius Hostilius practised certain mysterious rites to call down the fire from heaven. What these mysterious rites were is of no moment; the fact is sufficient. Tullius, because he omitted some prescribed ceremony, is said to have been killed by the fire. A similar accident happened in France with the electrical kite.[10]

[32]

For deceptions with fire, the ancients employed a number of inflammable substances, which they dexterously used; among them, naphtha, a fine bituminous oil, which readily inflames, was principally used. (For the effect of naphtha, see Greek fire.) Galen informs us, that a person excited great surprise by extinguishing a candle, and again lighting it without any other process than holding it against a wall or a stone. This, Galen observes, (De Temperamentis, iii. 2, p. 44.) was effected in consequence of the wall or stone being previously rubbed with sulphur, which, however, must have been something more. He also speaks of a mixture of sulphur and naphtha. If it had been phosphorus, or some of its preparations, it would appear more probable.

Plutarch relates the secret effects of naphtha, and observes, that Alexander was astonished and delighted, when it was exhibited to him in Ecbatana. Medea destroyed Creusa, the daughter of Creon, with this oil. This fact is stated by Plutarch, Pliny, Galen, and others, and believed by Beckman. She sent, it appears, to the unfortunate princess, a dress covered with it, which burst into flames as soon as she approached the fire of the altar. The dress of Hercules, which also took fire, was dipped in naphtha, though said to be in the blood of Nessus. On the subject of naphtha, Beckman remarks, "that this oil must have been employed when offerings caught fire in an imperceptible manner. In all periods of the world, priests have acted as jugglers to simple and ignorant people."

The most ludicrous account of the necromantic art, by which similar tricks were performed, is that given by Celini, (Life of Benvenuto Celini, a Florentine Artist, by T. Nugent, LL. D. &c.) of a Sicilian priest, who drew circles on the floor with various ceremonies, using fire and different perfumes. Having made an opening to the circle, and thrown perfumes into the fire at a proper time, he observes, that in the space of an hour and half, "there appeared several legions of devils, insomuch that the amphitheatre was quite filled with them." Benvenuto, it seems, at the instance of the priest, asked some favours of them, which, however, he never realized. At a second exhibition he held a pentagorun, while the priests questioned the leaders of the demons "by the virtue and power of the eternal uncreated God," using the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages. The Demons appeared more numerous than at first, and more formidable. He states that "quivering like an aspen leaf, he took good care of the perfumes," and was directed by the[33] priest "to burn proper perfumes." This ceremony was continued until the "bell rang for morning prayers," and the priest "stripped off his gown and took up a wallet-full of books," declaring, "that as often as he had entered magic circles, nothing so extraordinary had ever happened to him!" How is it, in the language of professor Beckman, that "in all periods of the world, priests have acted as jugglers to simple and ignorant people?"    *   *   *   *   *

This same Benvenuto Celini, however, was a man of intelligence. He wrote a work called the History of Jewelry; in which the first idea of phosphorescent mineral bodies is to be found. This work was written in the beginning of the 16th century. His life, although singularly marked, what with popes, priests, artists, and necromancers, presents a singular retrospect.

What was more absurd, and even profane, than the tricks of Joseph Balsamo, called Il Conte Cagliostro, who with Schœpfer, revived the study of the magical arts; and who with invocations, friction, fumigations, and optical deceptions astonished the ignorant of their day. Whether like Æneas, in his descent to hell, they made their way with their falchions through crowds of ghosts, or like Dioscorides, relied on the efficacy of herbs, or like Paracelsus, carried an evil spirit in their canes, or wore a jewel like Shakspeare's toad, which possessed marvellous virtues, or employed the magic stone (agate) of the east, and invoked their urim and thummim,—it is certain they worked upon the imagination of the people. By the application of conium maculatum, (hemlock) consisted the ceremony of ordaining a Hierophant; by the hartshorn of Orpheus, they had a divine remedy for the passions of the body; and by a mixture of new mustard and olive oil, they could produce a symphony, which invoked the spirits, and, Pythonesis like, declare to the people, that they "had devils in their bellies!!"

Of the phial of Cagliostro, Cardan relates that he had this phial twice exhibited to him, and complains bitterly of having seen nothing, after the anthem Sancte Michael, but some bubbles that issued from the bottom, though it was believed that these bubbles were angels! He says, "Nihil tamen omnino vidi poste hanc invocationem nisi bulas pauculas quasdam ex imo gutti fundo exæstuantes." Aulus Gellius and Hero mention tricks of this kind practised by the Egyptians. Roger Bacon, the alchymist, was excommunicated by the pope, and imprisoned ten years, for supposed dealings with the devil.

[34]

Equally absurd to a man of reflection, are the observations of antiquated writers on spontaneous generation, by heat. Borello (Physical History) tells us, "that fresh water craw fish may be regenerated, by their own powder, calcined in a crucible, then boiled in water with a little sand, and left to cool, for a few days; when the animalcula will appear swimming merrily in the liquor, and must be then nourished with beef blood, till they attain the proper size to stock your ponds with."[11] The Sieur Pogeris and M. de Chamberlan, both agree with Signior Borello, but, in the chemistry of the matter, they add that the operation must be performed, during the full of the moon! If this lunar system be adopted, would not the crab also, have been a more favourable sign to have ruled the nativity of craw fish?

Swift, however, alludes to these agencies, fallacious as they are, in the following lines:

Rochos, equally absurd with Borello, says, in The Art of Nature, that the ashes of toads will produce the very same effect, as the powder of crabs' eyes! Reasoning upon that ridiculous and unnatural principle of Cæsalpinus, in his comment on Aristotle, Quæcumque ex semine fiunt, eadem fieri posse sine semine, the procreation of eels from rye-meal, or mutton broth was predicated.

Julius Camillus, however, would out-do nature herself; for Amatus Lusitanus affirms, that he has seen his phials full of homunculi complete in all their parts! Paracelsus (De Rerum Natura,) had the same and many other absurd notions. What, we may truly say, has not been palmed upon the world, when we are told, that the following translation from a Hague Gazette, which appeared in the British Evening Post, No. 1645, contained facts, which were confidently believed by the ignorant:

"Mr. Tunestrick, by origin an Englishman, has just exhibited at Versailles, a very singular experiment. He opened the head of a sheep, and a horse from side to side, by driving a large iron wedge into the skull, by means of a mallet; drew[35] the wedge out afterwards, with pincers, and recalled the animals to life, by injecting through their exterior aperture with a tin syringe, a spirituous liquor of his own composition, to which he attributes surprising effects! The taste of this liquor resembles that of Commandus Balm!!" The remarkable effects of galvanism, however, are well authenticated; but resuscitation, notwithstanding all apparent life, has in no instance, to our knowledge, been effected. (See Ure's Chemical Dictionary, article Galvanism.)

Among other tricks, we may mention those with serpents, especially in the East Indies, and neighbouring islands, where a certain class of people exhibit them for money.[12]

[36]

Persons who could walk over red-hot coals, or red-hot iron, or who could hold them in their hands and their teeth, are frequently mentioned. In the end of the 17th century, Richardson, an Englishman, was a great adept in this performance. We are assured he could chew burning coals, pour melted lead upon his tongue, swallow melted glass, &c; but the fact is incredible.

It is true, that the skin may be prepared in such a way as to become callous and insensible against the impression made on the feet and hands. It may be rendered as firm as shoes and gloves. Such callosity may be produced, if the skin is continually compressed, singed, pricked, or injured in any other manner. Beckman relates, that in 1765, he visited the copper-works at Awestad, when one of the workmen, for some money, took some of the melted copper in his hand, and after showing it, threw it against a wall. He performed a variety of other experiments with the melted metal.

The workmen at the Swedish melting-house have exhibited the same thing to some travellers in the 17th century. The skin is first rendered callous by frequently moistening it, as Beckman says, with sulphuric acid; and also, he remarks, by using the juice of certain plants. The skin must also be rubbed frequently, and for a long time, with oil. Haller, in his Elementa Physiologica, V. p. 16, speaks of this fact.

The manner of rendering the hands callous, or insensible, so that they may take up, and hold, ignited iron, charcoal, or other substances, may be seen in an English publication of 1667. The Journal des Savants, of 1677, contains the secret. "It consists in applying to the hands, various pastes, with spirits of sulphur, (sulphuric acid,) which destroys the epidermis, &c. and the nervous energy." This corroborates the account by Beckman. We read that Richardson had prepared his tongue in such a manner, that he could hold on the point of it a live coal, covering it first with pitch, rosin, and sulphur, and could hold a piece of ignited iron between his teeth. After showing the coal on his tongue, he would then extinguish it in his mouth. The Mémoires de l'Académie state, that a person who is salivated can put a live coal in his mouth. The Dictionnaire de l'Industrie observes, that the sulphur diminishes the heat of the coal, for the flame is less hot than a candle; and that the flame of a combination of pitch, rosin, and sulphur, is still less hot, and by no means so considerable as we would imagine. In the expe[37]riment, the rosin is not melted, and the flame of the sulphur is inconsiderable. M. Gallois observes, that he witnessed in the Swedish iron founderies, the men hold melted cast iron in their hands, doubtless having them previously prepared.

The traces of this art may be found in the works of the ancients. A festival was held annually, on Mount Soracta, in Etruria, at which the Hirpi, who lived not far from Rome, jumped through burning coals, and on this account had certain privileges granted them by the Roman Senate.

Women also, we are informed, were accustomed to walk over burning coals, at Cartabola, in Cappadocia, near the temple dedicated to Diana. Servius remarks, that the Hirpi did not trust to their sanctity so much as they did to the preparation of their feet for the operation!

With respect to the ordeal by fire, which it seems was performed in several ways, one was, that when persons were accused, they were obliged to prove their innocence by holding in their hands red-hot iron. This mode of exculpation, as it is called, was allowed only to weak persons, who were unfit to wield arms, and particularly to monks and ecclesiastics, to whom, for the sake of their security, the trial by single combat was forbidden. In Grupius' learned dissertation, in the German, p. 679, as quoted by Beckman, we read, that the trial itself took place in the church, under the inspection of the clergy; mass was celebrated at the same time; the defendant and the iron, were consecrated, by being sprinkled with holy water; the clergy made the iron hot themselves; and they used all these preparations, as jugglers do many motions, only to divert the attention of the spectators. It was necessary that the accused person should remain at least three days and three nights, under their immediate care, and continue as long after. They covered their hands both before and after the proof; sealed and unsealed the covering: the former, as they pretended, to prevent the hands from being prepared by art; and the latter to see if they were burnt.

Some artificial preparation was undoubtedly necessary, or why prescribe three days for the defendant, who, if they wished to make him appear innocent, had a certain preventive against the actual cautery? The three days allotted, after the trial, were requisite, in order to restore the hands to their natural state. The sacred sealing secured them from the examination of presumptuous unbelievers.

[38]

When the ordeal was abolished, it no longer was kept secret. In the 13th century, an account of it was published by a Dominican Monk, Albertus Magnus. In the work of this author, entitled, De Mirabilibus Mundi, he has given the receipt for the composition. It seems that it consisted in covering the hands with a kind of paste, and not by searing them. The sap of the althæa, or marsh mallow, the mucilaginous seeds of the fleabane, together with the white of an egg, were mixed, and by applying this mixture, the hands were as safe as if they had been secured by gloves. The use of this mixture, for the same purpose, may be traced back, it is said, to a pagan origin. In the Antigone of Sophocles, the guards, placed over the body of Polynicus, which had been carried away and buried, contrary to the orders of Creon, offered, in order to prove their innocence, to submit to any trial: "We will," said they, "take up red-hot iron in our hands, or walk through fire."

The ordeal, by heated ploughshares, was common in England. It seems, according to English History, that queen Emma had charges preferred against her, by Robert, archbishop of Canterbury, for consenting to the death of her son Alfred, and preparing poison for her son Edward, the Confessor. She claimed, by the law of the land, the ordeal, or trial, by burning ploughshares. She passed the nine ploughshares unhurt, which established her innocence, and caused the archbishop to fly the kingdom. The chief trials, by ordeal, appear to have been by fire, water, walking blindfold among heated ploughshares, and swallowing consecrated bread, which last was introduced about the time of pope Eugene. The custom was borrowed from the Mosaic law. An example of its practice occurs in the New Testament, in the story of Ananias and Sapphira; and the remembrance of it, as Blackstone remarks, still subsists among common people, as "May this morsel be my last;" "May I be choked if it is so," and the like; for it appears, that this ordeal was a piece of bread of about an ounce in weight, blessed by the priest, and given to the accused person, who was to try and swallow it, praying that it might choke him if he were guilty. The bible-ordeal, and the drowning-ordeal, are familiar to every one, degrading as they all must have been to human reason, and enlightened principles. Fox, in his Book of Martyrs, speaks of various ordeals, as well as the cruel deaths, and inhuman punishments inflicted, by the hand of bigotry, and fanaticism, under the cloak of religion, which were nothing more than a base and impious prostitution of its genuine principles.

[39]

Even among the modern Greeks, the same superstitious notions prevail. Almost every cavern about Athens has its particular virtues, and is celebrated for various things; and the offerings, made by Grecian women, to the destinies, in order to make them propitious to their conjugal speculations, are equally absurd. These offerings, by which they are to work a miracle, consist of a cup of honey and white almonds, a cake on a little napkin, and a vase of aromatic herbs, burning and exhaling an agreeable perfume. We are told, however, that those evil spirits, whose assistance is invoked, for vengeance and blood, are not regaled upon cakes and honey, but on a piece of a priest's cap, or a rag from his garment, which are considered as the most favourable ingredients for the perpetration of malice and revenge. When a person is hated, another absurd custom is used, which is supposed to be followed by dreadful results. It consists in placing before his door, a log of wood, burnt at one end, with some hairs twisted round it. "This curse," says Mr. Dodwell, in his Classical Tour, "was placed with due solemnity, at the door of the English agent, Speridion Logotheti, while I was at Athens; but he rendered it of no avail, by summoning a great number of priests, who easily destroyed the spell, by benediction, frankincense, and holy water!" This story is much in character with that of the exorcism of rats, caterpillars, flies, and other insects, an old ritual of the papal church, performed between the feasts of Easter and the Ascension. A priest who resided at Bononia, performed the ceremony. "I went," he says, "to exorcise the insects in that country, accompanied by a curate, who was a droll fellow, and laughed at the credulity of the people, while he pocketed their money." It appears, however, that in all superstitious ceremonies, fire, under some form, was a pre-requisite; but ecclesiastical fire-works we leave within the pales of the priesthood.

The author of the Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, vol. iii, speaks of a trick, performed with a loaded musket and ball, which, although apparently inconsistent, is nevertheless true, if we consider the action of gunpowder equal. This trick is stated to be the firing of a musket, loaded with ball, at a person, without wounding, or in any way injuring him.

By taking a ball of solid lead of a smaller size than the calibre of the musket, and placing it on the charge in a gun, and as much or nearly so of powder, over the ball, the effect we are assured is, that when the gun is fired, the ball will pass out without any very sensible force, and even drop[40] a few yards from the gun, although the report will be as great as if the charge and ball had been used in the usual manner. This trick is often performed by jugglers, to the great astonishment of the spectators. The mode of catching a cannon ball is also of the same character.

The proper charge of powder for the cannon, is divided into two unequal portions, the lesser of which is placed in the gun as a charge; the ball is placed on it in the usual way, and the rest of the powder (by much the greater portion,) placed over the ball, the lesser quantity being not more than a twelfth part of the whole. A cannon, so charged, will not project the ball more than 20 yards, where it might be caught with safety.

Any person who has been in the custom of shooting, must have frequently observed, that when the shot happens to be mixed with the powder, its range is impeded; and, under similar circumstances, they have even been found only a few yards from the muzzle of the piece. This fact I have witnessed, although I confess I never once reflected on it.

As to the explanation of this phenomenon, it appears, that it can only be accounted for by referring to the action of two opposite forces, mutually repelling each other, added to that of the charge under the ball; hence, the reaction would be equal, if, under the same circumstances, both charges were alike situated: but the effect of the first charge is so much weakened by the counter effect of the second, that the projectile force of the ball becomes comparatively nothing.

There is another trick very often performed, which, however chemical, is not looked upon in that light, neither do performers attempt to explain it; we mean the exhibition of the Glace Inflammable of the French.

The preparation is made in the following manner: melt some spermaceti over a fire, and add a sufficient quantity of spirit of turpentine, and blend them together. The mixture when cold, will become solid, having somewhat the appearance of ice. If made in hot weather, the vessel containing the melted substances must be immersed in cold water. It does not, we are told, remain in a solid state any length of time.

It floats more or less in the fluid, which of course is the spirit of turpentine. The trick, with this preparation, after having put some of the solid and fluid substance together on a plate, is to pour upon it concentrated nitric acid, or a mixture of eight or ten parts of nitric acid, and two of sulphuric acid; inflammation ensues. It is no other in fact than[41] accension of the oil of turpentine; the addition of the spermaceti is altogether secondary, and its effect, if any, must retard instead of promoting the combustion of the turpentine. The art of making this preparation is in rendering the essential oil solid and transparent, without altering its inflammable properties.

There is another trick performed, by burning a thread, to which an ear-ring is tied, and which, notwithstanding the thread is reduced to a cinder, still holds the ring. This is what the French call the Bague suspendue aux cendres d'un fil. The string is first prepared by soaking it for 24 hours, in a solution of common salt, and drying it; then tying it to a ring, and setting it on fire, avoiding any vibration or oscillation of the string. It is obvious that the salt serves to render the cinder cohesive.

We have an account in Maundrel's Travels from Aleppo to Jerusalem, of the office of the Holy Fire. The ceremony is kept up by the Greeks and Armenians, from a persuasion that every Easter eve, a miraculous flame descends from heaven into the holy sepulchre, and lights all the lamps and candles, as the sacrifice was consumed at the prayers of Elijah.

"On our approaching the holy sepulchre," says Maundrel, "we found it crowded with a numerous and distracted mob, who made a hideous clamour; but with some difficulty pressing through the crowd, we got up in the gallery next to the Latin convent, where we could have a view of all that passed. The people began, by running with all their might, round the holy sepulchre, crying out 'huia,' which signifies, 'This is he,' or, 'This is it.' After this, they began to perform many antic tricks: sometimes they dragged one another along the floor round the sepulchre; sometimes marched round with a man upright upon another's shoulders; at others, took men with their heels upwards, and hurried them about with such indecency, as to expose their nudities; and sometimes they tumbled round the sepulchre like tumblers on a stage. In a word, nothing can be imagined more rude and extravagant than what was acted upon this occasion.

"This frantic humour continued from twelve till four, and then the Greeks first set out in a procession round the sepulchre, followed by the Armenians, and marched three times round it with their standards, streamers, crucifixes, and embroidered habits; and towards the end of the procession, a pidgeon came fluttering into the cupola over the sepulchre, at which the people redoubled their shouts and clamours[42], when the Latins told the English gentlemen, that this bird was let fly by the Greeks, to deceive the people with a belief that it was a visible descent of the Holy Ghost. The procession being over, the suffragan of the Greek patriarch, and the principal Armenian bishop, approached the door of the sepulchre, cut the string with which it was fastened, and breaking the seal, entered, shutting the door after them, all the candles and lamps within having been before extinguished in the presence of the Turks. As the accomplishment of the miracle drew near, the exclamations were redoubled, and the people pressed with such violence towards the door, that the Turks could not keep them off with the severest blows. This pressing forward was occasioned by the desire to light their candles at the holy flame as soon as it was brought out of the sepulchre. The two miracle-mongers had not been above a minute in the sepulchre, when the glimmering of the holy fire was seen through some chinks in the door, which made the mob as mad as any in bedlam; then presently came out the priests, with blazing torches in their hands, which they held up at the door of the sepulchre, while the people thronged with extraordinary zeal to obtain a part of the first and purest flame, though the Turks laid on with their clubs without mercy. Those who got the fire immediately applied it to their beards, faces, and bosoms, pretending that it would not burn like an earthly flame; but none of them would endure the experiment long enough to make good that pretension. However, so many tapers were presently lighted, that the whole church seemed in a blaze, and this illumination concluded the ceremony."

Maundrel afterwards observes, that the Latins take great pains to expose this ceremony as a shameful imposition, and a scandal to the Christian Religion: but the Greeks and Armenians, lay such stress upon it, that they make the pilgrimages chiefly on this account; and their priests have acted the cheat so long, that they are forced now to stand to it, for fear of endangering the apostacy of the people. They entertain many absurd ideas respecting the miraculous power of the holy fire. Even the melted wax of the candle, which had been lighted by it, is covered over with linen, and designed for winding-sheets; "for they imagine," says Maundrel, "that if they are buried in a shroud, smutted with this celestial fire, it will secure them from the flames of hell!"

Before concluding this article, we shall mention a subject highly interesting in optics, which, in some of its forms, was employed by the old magicians; we mean the phantasmagoria.[43] The exhibitions of this kind, when first got up, drew the attention of Europeans, and particularly the French, who greatly improved the apparatus and machinery, and varied the forms and appearances. The principles of the phantasmagoria are described in every work on Natural Philosophy, which treats of optics. The Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, Encyclopedie Méthodique, Biot's Traité de Physique, in French and in English, the different treatises on philosophy and optics, particularly Dr. Smith's, the Cyclopedias, &c. contain either a description, or the principles of it. The third volume of Biot, especially, is full on the subject of optics. With regard, however, to the narrative and explanation of the appearance of the phantoms, and other figures, a subject which immediately concerns us, the account given by Mr. Nicholson, (Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chymistry, and the Arts, vol. i, p. 147.) is the most interesting. Connected with this optical illusion, is the imitation of lightning and thunder, which, from the account, appears also to have been performed.

The phantasmagoria may be considered nothing more than an application of the magic lantern, the invention of which is attributed to Roger Bacon, who was a contemporary with Vitellio, a native of Poland, who published a treatise on optics, in 1270. John Babtista Porta, of Naples, who discovered the camera obscura, having formed a society of ingenious persons at Naples, which he called the Academy of Secrets, wrote the Magia Naturalis, containing his account of this instrument, and, it is said, the first hint of the magic lantern. Kircher, it is known, received his first information of the magic lantern from this book, and afterwards improved it.

Adams (Lectures on Natural and Experimental Philosophy, vol. ii, p. 232. Appendix by the English editor) very justly observes, that persons, unacquainted with the principles of optics, have been surprised at the great illusion of their sight, by an artificial construction of many optical instruments, exhibited by showmen and others: such, for instance, as the optical and dioptrical paradox; the endless gallery; the animated balls by simple reflection; phantoms; causing the appearance of a flower from its ashes; the optical perspective box, and the cylindrical mirror: to which we may add, the enchanted bottle; the enchanted palace; the magic lantern; the magician's mirror; the perspective mirror; the camera obscura; distorting and oracular mirror; the diagonal opera glass, &c. &c.; all which may be seen in Smith's School of Arts.

[44]

We may also remark, that optical exhibitions sometimes accompany those of fire, when performed on a small scale. In the phantasmagoria, for instance, whether before, or at the time the exhibition commences, as well as after, thunder and lightning, if well imitated, produces a good effect.

The mechanism of the phantasmagoria is concealed from the spectators, who have only before their eyes a screen of gauze or gummed muslin posited vertically, which serves as the ground of a picture, where the images are depicted by reason of the transparency. The apartment is deprived of all light, except that which proceeds from an apparatus hid behind the screen. At the moment when the operation commences, a spectre appears (as a skeleton, the head of a celebrated person, &c.), at first extremely small, but which afterwards increases rapidly, and thus seems to advance at a great rate towards the spectators. And when the scene passes before them in a room representing a cave hung with black, a solemn silence being occasionally interrupted by mournful sounds from an appropriate musical instrument, it is not easy for an observer to defend himself from the impression of terror, at the sight of an object, in itself formed to produce the illusion, and which finds in the imagination a place already prepared for the reception of phantoms.

The instrument placed behind the gauze screen is in fact a peculiar construction of the magic lantern: only in the former, it is necessary that the lenses should run over a much greater space, and that the instrument may be susceptible of approaching to, and receding from, the frame of gauze, in such manner, that each luminous pencil may be depicted there in a single point. The general construction is this: In a square box, a lamp is placed, the luminous rays proceeding from which, are reflected by a conical mirror, towards an orifice made in the box. At this orifice is placed a tube, blackened within, and composed of several tubes which slide one into another, like those of a pocket telescope. This tube is furnished with two bi-convex lenses of about five inches diameter; one of these is fixed, the other is at the outer extremity of the tube, and is separated from the former in proportion as the tube is lengthened by the aid of a hooked lever situated along the tube, between the lamp and the lenses. A groove is properly adapted to the tube, destined to receive transparent figures; lastly, the box rests upon a table moveable on four wheels, that slide in two channels perpendicularly to the frame on which the images are depicted. It is manifest, that we may augment or diminish the dimensions of the images,[45] and consequently make the spectre appear more or less near to the spectator, by separating farther, or by bringing nearer together, the two lenses; but then the focus of the diverging rays, which proceed from the same point of the transparent body, will be no longer upon the screen; we must, therefore, cause the machine so to recede or approach, that the two motions, being duly combined, the image may be distinctly formed.

These phantasmagoria are furnished with a great number of transparencies, in each of which, several changes may be made by slackening their springs. Thus we may change at every instant, the form, the magnitude, and the distance of the spectres, as they appear to the spectator.

What has been said hitherto, relates only to the images of transparent figures. To obtain those of opaque bodies, first place the gauze and box, at the distance of about six feet one from the other, and adapt to the orifice of the box, an apparatus of two tubes furnished with two bi-convex lenses. An opaque body, such, for example, as a medal, or a picture, is attached to a little support, posited in the middle of the box; the lamp with its supply of air, situated in one of the foremost corners of the box, illuminates that object, and the reflected rays, crossing the lenses, proceed till they trace the image upon the gauze, with an amplification which is in the ratio of the distances.

If the image be not distinct, we must infer that it is not at the focus; but it may be adjusted in three different ways; 1. By moving the box to or from the gauze; 2. By moving the object nearer to, or farther from, the lenses within the box; 3. By slowly moving the tubes, to cause a variation in the distance between the lenses.—See Haüy's Philosophy, translated by Gregory, vol. ii, p. 390.

Mr. Nicholson, however, witnessed an exhibition of the phantasmagoria at the London Lyceum by Philipstal, who took out a patent for his improvements in the apparatus and machinery. He observes, that the novelty consists in placing the lantern on the opposite side of the screen which receives the images, instead of on the same side as the spectator, and suffering no light to appear but what passes through, and tends to form those images. His sliders are therefore perfectly opaque, except that portion upon which the transparent figures are drawn, and the exhibition is thus conducted.

All the lights of the small theatre of exhibition were removed, except one hanging lamp, which could be drawn up, so that its flame should be perfectly enveloped in a cylindrical[46] chimney, or opaque shade. In this gloomy and wavering light, the curtain was drawn up, and presented to the spectator a cave or place exhibiting skeletons, and other figures or terror, in relief, and painted on the sides or walls. After a short interval, the lamp was drawn up, and the audience were in total darkness, succeeded by thunder and lightning; which last appearance was formed by the magic lantern upon a thin cloth or screen, let down after the disappearance of the light, and consequently unknown to most of the spectators. These appearances were followed by figures of departed men, ghosts, skeletons, transmutations, &c. produced on the screen by the magic lantern on the other side, and moving their eyes, mouth, &c. by the well known contrivance of two or more sliders. The transformations are effected by moving the adjusting tube of the lantern out of focus, and changing the slider during the moment of the confused appearance.

It must be again remarked, that these figures appear without any surrounding circle of illumination, and that the spectators, having no previous view or knowledge of the screen, nor any visible object of comparison, are each left to imagine the distance according to their respective fancy. After a very short time of exhibiting the first figure, it was seen to contract gradually in all its dimensions, until it became extremely small, and then vanished. This effect, as may easily be imagined, is produced by bringing the lantern nearer and nearer the screen, taking care at the same time to preserve the distinctness, and at last closing the aperture altogether: and the process being (except as to brightness) exactly the same as happens when visible objects become more remote, the mind is irresistibly led to consider the figures, as if they were receding to an immense distance.

Several figures of celebrated men were thus exhibited with some transformations; such as the head of Dr. Franklin being converted into a skull, and these were succeeded by phantoms, skeletons, and various terrific figures, which instead of seeming to recede and then vanish, were (by enlargement) made suddenly to advance; to the surprise and astonishment of the audience, and then disappear by seeming to sink into the ground.

This part of the exhibition, which by the agitation of the spectators appeared to be much the most impressive, had less effect with me than the receding of the figures; doubtless because it was more easy for me to imagine the screen to be withdrawn than brought forward. But among the young people who were with me, the judgments were various. Some[47] thought they could have touched the figures, others had a different notion of their distance, and a few apprehended that they had not advanced beyond the first row of the audience.

The whole, as well as certain mechanical inventions, were managed with dexterity and address. The lightning, being produced by the camera, was tame, and had not the brisk transient appearance of the lightning at the theatres, which is produced by rosin, or lycopodium powder, thrown through a light, which in Mr. P's utter darkness might easily have been concealed in a kind of dark lantern.

A plate of thin sheet iron, such as German stoves are made of, is an excellent instrument for producing the noise of thunder. It may be three or four feet long, and the usual width. When this plate is held between the finger and thumb by one corner, and suffered to hang at liberty, if the hand be then moved or shaken horizontally, so as to agitate the corner at right angles to the surface, a great variety of sounds will be produced; from the low rumbling swell of distant thunder, to the succession of loud explosive bursts of thunder from elevated clouds. This simple instrument is very manageable, so that the operator soon feels his power of producing whatever character of sound he may desire; and notwithstanding this description may seem extravagant, whoever tries it for the first time will be surprised at the resemblance. If the plate be too small, the sound will be short, acute, and metallic.

We may remark also, that the magic lantern, by new contrived sliders and machinery, may be applied to important uses, by employing it with such figures as will explain the general principles of optics, astronomy, botany, &c.

The experiment mentioned by Ferguson, with a concave mirror, reflecting into the air the appearance of fire, &c. into a focal point, (founded on a general principle of concave reflectors,) is productive of many agreeable deceptions, and which exhibited with art and an air of mystery, has been very successfully employed.

The phantasmascope of Walker is similar to the phantasmagoria. It is an optical machine, which presents a door that opens itself. The apparatus is so contrived, that, on opening the door, a phantom makes its appearance, having all the colours of a picture, which approaches the spectator. Various figures may be accurately represented.

We will not enlarge on this subject, although many other[48] instances of tricks, performed by means of fire, &c. might be noticed. We will merely remark:

1. For the performance of these exhibitions, the ancient, as well as the modern jugglers, of all descriptions, employed, and were acquainted with sundry mixtures, and compositions, by the use of which, they deceived the people; and some pretended to possess supernatural agencies. Of these compositions, with many of which we are unacquainted, we have enumerated some, and their effects. That of producing a callosity of the skin, &c. by means of acids, is an example.

2. That they possessed, as a trade or profession, the arts of deception. Not only by the use of chemical preparations, but by other means, they pretended to work miracles in the dark ages of science. However degraded these persons may seem, they yield in vice to another class, who practised the art of poisoning, and who kept it so profound a secret, that few then understood the effect of the now common, vegetable, and mineral poisons. Who could have been more infamous than the celebrated female poisoner, Tophania?

CHAPTER II.

OF THE SUBSTANCES USED IN THE FORMATION OF FIRE-WORKS.

Sect. I. Of Nitrate of Potassa, or Saltpetre.

Nitrate of potassa, nitre, or saltpetre, is composed, as its name expresses, of nitric acid, and potassa. When pure, it contains, according to Kirwan, potassa 51.8, nitric acid 44, and water 4.2 in the hundred. This salt, when pure, or even mixed with other saline substances, is recognised by placing it on hot coals. Slight detonations, and a hissing noise, with a vivid combustion take place. It is also decomposed by sulphuric acid, and the nitrous vapour is apparent from its smell and colour.

Nitrate of potassa crystallises in six-sided prisms, terminated by six-sided pyramids. Its specific gravity is 1.933. Its taste is sharp and cooling. One part is soluble in seven[49] parts of water, at the temperature of 60 degrees, and in rather less than its own weight of boiling water.

It melts in a strong heat, and by cooling congeals into an opaque mass, called crystal mineral, or sal prunelle.

Exposed to a red heat, it disengages oxygen gas, and passes to the state of a nitrate; at a higher temperature, this is decomposed, and oxygen, azote, and a portion of nitrous acid, which has not been decomposed, are evolved. What remains is potassa. When projected on ignited coals, it burns brilliantly. Detonation also ensues by mixing nitre and charcoal, and throwing the mixture into a red-hot crucible. The residuum is carbonate of potassa. Fourcroy (Système des Connoissances Chimiques, Tome iii, p. 124.) observes, that metals, with nitrate of potassa, will decompose this salt, and produce different coloured flame, extremely brilliant, on which account such substances are used in fire-works.

The alchymists believed, they could obtain, from nitre, a liquor, which would constitute, with other substances, the philosopher's stone. The clyssus of nitre, they imagined, possessed wonderful properties. The decomposition of nitre by charcoal, they effected in two ways, viz. by submitting the mixture to the action of heat in a crucible, or, otherwise in an earthen or iron retort. In the latter case, they collected a fluid, principally water, containing some carbonic acid, and the aeriform product they suffered to escape. The residue they named nitre fixed by charcoal, or, the extemporaneous alkali of nitre. When, in the place of charcoal, a mixture of sulphur and nitre was projected into a red-hot crucible, they obtained a saline substance, to which they gave the name of sal polychrest. This is the same as vitriolated tartar, or sulphate of potassa, and is that salt which is formed in the distillation of nitric acid from nitre, and sulphuric acid. The crystal mineral, of some of the old pharmacopœias, was nothing more than nitrate of potassa fused with a portion of sulphur, and, therefore, a mixed salt, consisting of nitrate and sulphate of potassa.

Nitrate of potassa, distilled with half its weight of sulphuric acid, furnishes nitric acid, or concentrated spirit of nitre. This, diluted with about an equal weight of water, forms the aqua fortis of the shops.

A mixture of nitre and phosphorus, if struck with a hammer, produces a violent detonation. Nitre oxidizes all the metals at a red heat, even gold and platinum.

Nitre and sulphur, thrown into a red-hot crucible, produces an instantaneous combustion, accompanied with a great[50] disengagement of light and heat. Sulphurous acid gas, with sulphuric acid, is produced.

Equal parts of cream of tartar, (supertartrate of potassa,) and nitre, deflagrated in a crucible, form white flux. Two parts of tartar, and one of nitre, treated in the same manner, produce black flux.

Three parts of nitre, one part of sulphur, and one part of sawdust, mixed together, form the powder of fusion.

When three parts of nitre, two parts of potash, and one of sulphur, all previously well dried, are mixed together, the compound is called pulvis fulminans, or, fulminating powder. A small portion of this powder, or as much as will lay on a shilling-piece, put on a shovel, and exposed to heat, will first melt, become liver-coloured, and then explode with great noise. The theory of this explosion is, that a part of the sulphur, and the potassa unite, and form a sulphuret; the sulphuret then decomposes water, and produces sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which appears to be decomposed by the nitric acid; and there results sulphurous acid gas, water, and, as Thenard observes, protoxide of azote, azotic gas, and sulphate of potassa. The loudness of the report depends on the combustion of the whole powder at the same instant, which is secured by the previous fusion it undergoes. Gunpowder, on the contrary, burns in succession, although apparently instantaneous. In using common potash, there is also, as the alkali contains it, carbonic acid, given out in the state of gas. In fact carbonic acid appears to assist the explosive effect of this powder, for when it is prepared with potash, containing little carbonic acid, its detonating power is considerably less.

Nitre likewise enters into the composition of another fulminating powder, invented by Dr. Higgins. Higgins's fulminating powder is composed of three and a half parts of nitre, two parts of crude antimony, and one part of sulphur. This is used in the same manner as the former.

Nitre enters into the composition of gunpowder, which we shall notice under a separate head. The proportions of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, for the formation of gunpowder, which are considered the best, are, 75 parts of nitre, 12¹/₂ of charcoal, and 12¹/₂ of sulphur.

The new powder of MM. Gengembrie and Bottée, which inflames by percussion, but without explosion, is composed of 21 parts of nitre, 54 parts of chlorate of potassa, 18 parts of sulphur, and 7 parts of lycopodium.

A mixture of nitre and crude antimony projected into a red-hot crucible, produces a deflagration more or less rapid,[51] forming a composition which is used in pharmacy, and medicine.

The quality of saltpetre may be determined by a variety of experiments. Fire-workers judge of its quality by the colour of its flame.

The flame should be white. If it be green or yellow, it is said to be impure.

Nitric acid, obtained by distilling saltpetre and sulphuric acid, has a powerful effect on inflammable substances. If nitric acid, or in preference, the fuming nitrous acid, be poured on spirit of turpentine, especially if it be old, it will inflame. To succeed, however, in this experiment, a small portion of sulphuric acid is usually added to the nitric acid. As this effect is owing to the facility, with which the acid parts with its oxygen to inflammable bodies, other essential oils, besides turpentine, will have the same effect. If the same acid is poured on finely pulverized charcoal, or on lampblack, combustion will also take place. When oils are used, water as well as carbonic acid is produced, and when charcoal or lampblack, carbonic acid alone. There is also a large quantity of carbon, in the former instance, which remains on the plate, or dish. M. Delametherie (Journal de Physique, 1815) has shown, that olive oil may be converted into a substance, resembling, and having many of the properties of, wax, by mixing it with a given proportion of nitric acid. The acid is decomposed, deutoxide of azote is formed, and the oil acquires a hard consistence. A candle made with this artificial wax, he observes, burns with a clear light and without smoke. The experiment with the glace inflammable is on the same principle.

Morey (Silliman's Journal, vol. ii, p. 121.) states a singular experiment, in which nitre is used; viz: If to tallow or linseed oil, a small quantity of saltpetre be added, and the temperature raised to nearly that of the boiling point, the saltpetre appears to be dissolved by the oil; they will evaporate together, and the mixture, or the vapour, will burn, wholly excluded from the atmosphere.

Saltpetre was one of the substances employed by the alchemists. It appears from the memoir of Geoffroy, (Coll. Academ. 1722,) that the object of the alchemists was twofold; the transmutation of metals, and particularly what were denominated the baser metals into the precious, which they pretended to effect by a universal spirit, the grand elixir, the philosopher's stone, &c. and the reduction of metals to their earths. Alchemy was introduced into Europe by the cru[52]saders, and it is remarkable, that, in the reign of Henry IV, an act was passed to make it felony to transmute metals. Mr. Boyle, aware of its absurdity, suggested the propriety of repealing that act, which was done. One of their powders was composed of nitre, cream of tartar, and sulphur.

Preparation. Although nitrate of potassa is generated in abundance, particularly in the East, yet in all countries, where the circumstances are favourable to its production, it is found. It never occurs, native, in very large masses. It is generally found in an efflorescence, on the surface of the soil, or in caverns. It never exists in the soil more than a few yards beneath the surface. We may remark, that native nitre has never been found in pure clay, or pure sand, except in the rock-ore, as it is called, of the western United States. It is often found in caverns, and fissures in calcareous rocks.

In the East Indies, the districts which furnish saltpetre, are swept at certain seasons of the year. This is repeated two or three times a week; for the saltpetre again appears in the same places, in the form of efflorescence.

It is supposed that some countries furnish saltpetre, in consequence of the drought, which continues for some time. At Lima, M. Dombay informs us, there is seldom rain; and the fields, which serve as pasturage for beasts, are so much covered with saltpetre, as to be removed with the spade. There must then be a rapid formation of nitre. M. Talbot observes, that in the meridional provinces of Spain, the earth frequented by animals, contains it, ready formed. When saltpetre became an article of importance, the rulers of Germany, &c. justified themselves in exclusively carrying away the incrustations of walls from private houses, which, when it could be used, became accessorium fundi. Accordingly this regale, as it was called, was extended every where, and was generally unpopular. In 1419, Gunther, archbishop of Magdeburgh, issued the first grant, which was the right of searching saltpetre and boiling it, during a year, in the district of Gibicherstein, for which the person, to whom it was granted, was to pay a barrel of saltpetre, and deliver to the archbishop the remainder at a certain price.

The succeeding archbishop, Frederick, let, in 1460, to a burgher of Halle, all the earth and saltpetre that could be collected in the bailiwick of Gibicherstein, for four years, at the annual rent of a given quantity of refined saltpetre. Bishop Ernest, in 1477, let, for his time, the privilege of collecting saltpetre. In 1544, saltpetre was collected, in the[53] same manner, from the rubbish before the gates of Halle; and in the year following, the magistrates of Halle erected a powder mill, and had saltpetre works. John VI, archbishop of Triers, granted similar privileges in 1560. The saltpetre regale, was long known, and confirmed by a Brandenburgh decree in 1583.

Old walls, and the vicinity of stables, frequently exhibit saltpetre in the state of efflorescence. It was the ancient scrophula contra lapides, represented as a kind of leprosy. For the spontaneous production of nitre, animal and vegetable substances, in a state of decomposition, and the presence of dry atmospheric air are necessary. That lime, and the calcareous carbonates also promote its formation, there can be no doubt.

Notwithstanding the large quantity of saltpetre collected in the East Indies, we are told, that two-thirds of the whole are annually sent into China, and other parts of Asia, to make artificial fire-works. The pyrotechny of the Chinese is said to be very perfect; in variety and beauty, some writers assert they exceed all other nations. There is a natural nitre bed at Apulia, near Naples, which affords 40 per centum of nitre. Pelletier, (Ann. de Chim. tome xxii.) has published an analysis. The cavity of Molfetta is one hundred feet deep, containing grottos or caverns. Nitrate of potassa is found in the interior, in efflorescence or crusts, attached to compact limestone. On removing these efflorescences, others appear. The soil in this cavity is richly impregnated with nitre.

In Switzerland, the farmers extract an abundance of saltpetre from the stalls under their cattle. During the American revolution, when every expedient was resorted to, to obtain a supply of this article, the floors of tobacco houses, &c. were dug up and lixiviated. In the reign of Charles the First, certain patentees were authorised to dig up the floors of all dove-houses, stables, &c. the floors being again laid with mellow earth.

The Ukraine, Podolia, Hungary, Spain, Italy, Peru, and India, furnish more or less of this salt, which is extracted by lixiviating the earths that compose the soil. The springs, in particular districts of Hungary, contain it.

We are informed, (Ann. de Chim. xx. 298,) that, during the second and third years of the French Republic, the government required every district to send two intelligent young persons to Paris. This convocation, consisting of nearly eleven hundred persons, received regular instruction from their first chemists, partly concerning the manufacture[54] of cannon, and partly respecting the manufacture of saltpetre and gunpowder. This body of pupils was afterwards distributed among the different establishments in proportion to their abilities, and saltpetre was soon furnished in abundance.

In the United States, we have an abundant source of saltpetre in the nitre caves of the western country. There is now no occasion for lixiviating the soil of tobacco houses, or of stables, or the refuse of old buildings, the preparation of artificial nitre beds, as adopted in France, or for any other expedient, to furnish a supply of saltpetre; these caverns, which are calcareous, producing it in great abundance. The earth of these caves does not, however, contain pure nitrate of potassa, but generally a mixture of this salt and nitrate of lime, a calcareous nitrate which constitutes the principal part. The latter is changed into nitrate of potassa, as we shall observe more particularly hereafter, by making a lixivium of the earth in the usual manner, and passing it through wood ashes. The alkali, which the latter contains, decomposes the nitrate of lime, by uniting with the nitric acid; hence the fluid, which passes through, is nitrate of potassa or saltpetre. This is evaporated, and suffered to crystallize. It is then the crude, or rough nitre, which is purified, principally by re-solution, and crystallization.

The saltpetre makers, at the caves, have found, that two bushels of ashes, made by burning the dry wood in hollow trees, afford as much alkali as eighteen bushels of ashes obtained from the oak. Notwithstanding the nitre earth contains a mixture of the nitrates of potassa and lime, nitrate of potassa, nearly pure, has been discovered. It is sometimes found in the fissures of sandstone, or among detached fragments. Some of these masses are said to weigh several hundred pounds.

Besides these caverns, which have been accurately described by Dr. Brown, in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, (vol. v, vi.) similar caverns have been discovered in Tennessee, and in some parts of Virginia and Maryland. At Hughes' cave near Hagerstown, in Maryland, this salt has also been made.

We are of opinion, that most of the calcareous caverns in the United States, if carefully examined, might be found to contain nitre, or at least, the calcareous nitrate, which is readily converted into nitre by lixiviation with wood ashes, or the addition of a due quantity of potash.

Professor Cleaveland, in noticing the saltpetre caves of the western country, observes, (Elementary Treatise on Mineralogy and Geology,) that one of the most remarkable of these[55] caverns is in Madison county, on Crooked Creek, about sixty miles S. E. from Lexington. This cavern extends entirely through a hill, and affords a convenient passage for horses and wagons. Its length is six hundred and forty-six yards; its breadth is generally about forty feet; and its average height, about ten feet. One bushel of the earth of this cavern, commonly yields from one to two pounds of nitre; and the same salt has been found to exist, at the depth of at least fifteen feet; even the clay, a fact which seems rather remarkable, is impregnated with nitrate of lime. Kentucky also furnishes native nitre under a very different form, and constituting what is there called the rock ore, which is in fact a sand stone, richly impregnated with nitrate of potassa. These sand stones are generally situated at the head of narrow vallies, which traverse the sides of steep hills. They rest on calcareous strata, and sometimes present a front from sixty to one hundred feet high. When broken into small fragments, and thrown into boiling water, the stone soon falls into sand; one bushel of which, by lixiviation and crystallization, frequently yields ten pounds, and sometimes more than twenty pounds of nitrate of potassa. The nitre from these rocks contains little or no nitrate of lime. This account is corroborated by Dr. Brown,[13] to whom our author is indebted for his remarks.

In a memoir in the American Philosophical Transactions by Dr. Brown, then of Lexington Kentucky, we have a description of a nitre cave on Crooked Creek, with the process for extracting the saltpetre. From this memoir, the following extracts are made: The water which percolates through the cave in summer, as the walls and floor are dry in winter, condenses upon the rocks, and the substance thus formed, has the same properties as the salt obtained by lixiviating the earth of the floor. As far as the workmen have dug, the earth is strongly impregnated, every bushel of which, upon an average, furnishes one pound of nitre. The same earth will be again impregnated, if thrown into the cave. What length of time it requires to saturate it, is not known.

[56]

The workmen have different modes of forming an opinion with regard to the quantity of nitre, with which the earth may be impregnated. They generally trust to their taste; but it is always considered as a proof of the presence of the nitre, when the impression made one day on the dust by the hand or foot disappears the day following. Where there is a great deal of sand mixed with the dust, it is commonly believed that a small quantity of potash will suffice for the operation. The method of making saltpetre, usually practised in Kentucky, is as follows:

The earth is dug, and carried to hoppers of a very simple construction, which contain about fifty bushels. Cold water is poured on it for some time, and in a day or two, a solution of the salts runs into troughs placed beneath the hoppers. The lixiviation is continued as long as any strength remains in the earth. The liquor is then put into iron kettles, and heated to ebullition; it is afterwards thrown upon a hopper containing wood ashes, through which it is suffered to filtrate. As the alkaline part of the ashes is discharged before the nitrate passes through, the first runnings of this hopper are thrown back, and after some time, the clear solution of nitrate of potassa runs out, mixed with a white curd, which settles at the bottom of the trough. This clear liquor is boiled to the point of crystallization, then settled for a short time, and put into troughs to crystallize, where it remains twenty-four hours; the crystals are then taken out, and the mother water thrown upon the ash hopper, with the next running of the nitrate of lime. When the quantity of the nitrate of lime is too great for the portion of ashes employed, the workmen say their saltpetre is in the grease, and that they do not obtain a due quantity of nitre. If too much ashes are used, they say it is in the ley; and when it is left to settle previous to crystallization, a large quantity of salt will be deposited in the settling troughs, which they call cubic salts. These salts are again thrown upon the ash-hoppers, and are supposed to assist in precipitating the lime from the nitrate of lime, and in the opinion of the workmen are changed into pure saltpetre. To make a hundred pounds of good saltpetre at the great cave, eighteen bushels of oak ashes are necessary; ten of elm, or two of ashes made by burning the dry wood in hollow trees. The earth in some caves does not require half this quantity of wood ashes to decompose the earthy salts.

When wood ashes cannot be obtained in sufficient quantity, they make a lixivium of the earth, and boil it down, which[57] they call thick stuff. This is put in casks, and transported to a place where ashes can be had. When dissolved and passed through wood ashes, it is changed, as in the former process, into saltpetre. Having thus given the Doctor's account, let us inquire, in the next place, into the theory of the process.

The theory is very evident. The mixed nitrate, consisting of variable proportions of nitrate of lime and nitrate of potassa, is extracted from the saltpetre earth by water, which dissolves it. Now, as the affinity of nitric acid for potassa is greater than for lime, and consequently potassa will decompose nitrate of lime, when the lixivium is passed through wood ashes, the potassa they contain will unite with the nitric acid, and the lime be separated, which remains in the hopper. The liquor holds in solution no other salt than nitrate of potassa, provided the quantity of alkali in the wood ashes be sufficient to effect the decomposition;—if more, it will pass through in an uncombined state; and if less, the liquor will contain nitrate of lime. As the alkali contains more or less carbonic acid, the decomposition is not a case of single but of double affinity, in which we form, at the same time, a carbonate of lime.

When the solution is boiled, and set aside in the troughs to crystallize, the nitre will form in a regular manner. The mother water, or the fluid which remains after the crystallization, may contain, from the circumstance before stated, either potash, or undecomposed nitrate of lime—hence it is thrown on the hopper in a subsequent operation.

The nitre, however, as made at the caves, is called rough or crude nitre. Before it is used for the manufacture of gunpowder, and other purposes, it is purified or refined. This operation, which we shall notice more fully hereafter, is nothing more than the separation of all earthy salts, and the alkaline muriates and sulphates; in other words, the conversion of the whole by the separation of foreign substances, into pure nitrate of potassa.

The mode of treating the rock ore, or sand rocks, which contain nitre, is the same as before given. It contains more nitrate of potassa, and therefore requires less potash, and in some instances, the nitre is perfectly pure. The sand rocks often yield twenty or thirty pounds per bushel. A mass of pure nitre, weighing sixteen hundred pounds, has been discovered. Smaller masses have also been found.

The rocks which contain the greatest quantity of nitre are extremely difficult to bore, and are tinged brown or yellow.

[58]

Saltpetre makers find it to their interest to work the rock ore in preference to the calcareous nitrate, as it yields more nitre.

It is a fact well known, that foreign saltpetre contains a variety of deliquescent salts, or those salts which attract and absorb moisture and also common salt. The efforts of European refiners are directed to their separation. The saltpetre of the Western country, Dr. Brown assures us, does not contain common salt.

Dr. Brown, in Silliman's Journal, i, p. 147, in a letter to professor Silliman, observes, that there exists a black substance in the clay under the rocks, of a bituminous appearance and smell. This black substance, it appears, accompanies the sand-rock nitre, and is the same as that found in Africa, which also accompanies nitre in that country. Animal matter seems to have existed in the nitre caves of Africa, forming, as Mr. Barrow expresses it, either a roof or covering; no such matter, however, has ever been found in or adjacent to the nitre caves of the Western country.

The observations of Mr. Barrow on the subject of the saltpetre of Africa may be interesting to the reader. He observes, (Southern Africa, p. 291,) that, about twelve miles to the eastward of the wells, (Hepatic Wells), in a kloof of the mountain, we found a considerable quantity of native nitre. It was in a cavern similar to those used by the Bosgesmans for their winter habitations. The under surface of the projecting stratum of calcareous stone, and the sides that supported it, were incrusted with a coating of clear, white saltpetre, that came off in flakes. The fracture resembled that of refined sugar; it burnt completely without leaving any residuum; and if dissolved in water, and thus evaporated, crystals of pure prismatic nitre were obtained. This salt, in the same state, is to be met with under the sand-stone strata of many of the mountains of Africa. There was also in the same cave, running down the sides of the rock, a black substance, that was apparently bituminous. The peasants called it the urine of the das. The dung of this gregarious animal was lying upon the roof of the cavern to the amount of many wagon loads.

The Rev. Mr. Cornelius, in describing a cave in the Cherokee country at Nicojack, the north west angle in the map of Georgia, (Silliman's Journal, vol. i, p. 321,) observes, that it abounds with nitrate of potassa, a circumstance very common to the caves of the Western country, and is found covering the surfaces of fallen rocks, but in more abundance beneath them. There are two kinds; one is called the "clay[59] dirt," the other the "black dirt." The earth, however, contains calcareous nitre, and for that reason an alkaline lixivium is employed. In short, the process employed there is the same as at the other saltpetre caves which we have described. One bushel of the clay dirt yields from three to five pounds of nitre, and the black dirt from seven to ten pounds. It seems also, that the same dirt, if carried back to the cave, will become impregnated with nitre.

Mr. Cornelius remarks, that these caves have been used by the natives as burial places; in one of which he counted a hundred human skulls in the space of twenty feet square; and infers, that, by the decomposition of animal matter, the acid of nitric salts arises, and therefore that this may have occasioned the formation of the nitrates of potassa and lime.

At Corydon, in Indiana, there is a cave, which, according to Stilson's account, contains both nitrate of lime, and nitrate of magnesia. It is not worked.

Kain, in his remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of East Tennessee, (Silliman's Journal, vol. i, p. 65,) observes, that the numerous caves which have been found in the Cumberland mountains, and other parts of Tennessee have been very productive of nitrate of potassa; and in confirmation of the remarks before made, he adds, in investigating the causes that have given rise to these salts, that wild animals burrow in these caves; that, when pursued by the hunter, they make them the places of their retreat, and probably die there; that the aborigines have made them a place of burial; and that the streams of water, which flow through them, in wet weather, carry with them not only great quantities of leaves, but many other vegetable productions.

Without offering any theory, by which we may account for the formation of nitre, in nitre caves, or in situations which cannot be influenced by the putrefactive process, we may merely remark, that as nitric acid is composed of oxygen and azote, there must be some operation unknown to us, by which the union of these elements takes place. Nascent azote must unite with the base of oxygen gas; but whence, in saltpetre caves, proceeds the azote and the oxygen? It appears that calcareous bodies facilitate the formation of nitre, as they do in artificial nitre beds. The greater part of the nitrous earth is lime; and it also appears, that the same earth, after the extraction of the saltpetre, will again furnish it. We know that lime is a compound of a base called calcium united with oxygen; but in what manner it promotes the union of azote and oxygen, or furnishes either one[60] or the other of these bodies, or perhaps both, is altogether uncertain. Nor can we account for the formation of potash in the native nitre of the nitre caves. In other situations, as for instance where nitrous efflorescence appears on the earth, and in artificial nitre beds, in which animal and vegetable substances are in the act of decomposition by the putrefactive fermentation, we may account for the generation of nitric acid.

It is extremely probable, that the azote of the atmosphere, and oxygen may combine spontaneously, under particular circumstances, in various operations of nature. Azote, it is known, forms with oxygen two gases, a protoxide and deutoxide, and the same elements in other proportions form nitric acid. Some condition, unknown to us, must, as an operating cause, produce this compound. As a condition for its generation, the presence of calcareous and alkaline matter, favours the formation of nitric acid. Of this fact, we have sufficient proof, in the generation of nitre in artificial nitre beds. But, with respect to natural causes, although the facts themselves are conclusive, we know little or nothing.

Atmospheric air is a mixture, or compound, according to some, of two gases, oxygen and azote, with carbonic acid; but the proportion of the latter rarely exceeds two per cent, while the quantity of oxygen is about twenty-two. It is a solvent, as well as a vehicle, and hence may contain water, gaseous fluids, &c. Miasmata, which is contained often in the air, are vapours or effluvia, that affect the human system, and bring on diseases, of which the principal are the intermittent, remittent, and yellow fevers, dysentery and typhus. That of the last is generated in the human body itself. The same, or analogous causes, that produce the formation of nitric acid, may, under other circumstances, cause the formation of miasmata; for moist vegetable and other matter, in some unknown state of decomposition, generates it, and is known to have caused the yellow and other malignant fevers. (See an admirable work on the causes, &c. of the yellow fever in Philadelphia, by Samuel Jackson, M. D. president of the board of health, etc. in reply to the observations of Dr. Hosack.) The contagious virus of the plague, small pox, etc. as it operates in a more limited distance than marsh, or other miasmata, is communicated only in certain localities, and through the intermedium of the atmosphere. As to the chemical nature of miasmata, there can be no doubt that azote, under some form of combination, is one of its com[61]ponent parts, and one of the causes of disease. Is not cyanogen, or carburet of azote, perhaps combined with hydrogen, in the form of hydrocyanic or prussic acid, the substance, or principal substance, which forms the miasmata, that engenders the yellow fever? What compounds may be formed of hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, and azote, so as to produce miasmata, that will act specifically on the system for the production of intermittent, remittent, yellow, typhus, and other fevers?[14] This inquiry, permit me to add, is one of no small moment, as it involves in it a question of great importance relative to the origin of yellow fever. While we thus digress, in noticing the compounds of azote, let us briefly remark, as an indisputable conclusion, that the same causes of malignant disease in the West India islands, operating under similar circumstances in every respect, may engender the same disease in our cities.

The atmosphere is subject to changes of various kinds, and may be considered not only as a solvent, but a repository[62] for different foreign bodies. Electricity, an agent so essential in the economy of nature, has its ends, its uses; and while, no doubt, it unites hydrogen with oxygen, in the most elevated regions of the air, and forms water, it may act under particular circumstances to produce a union of azote and oxygen so as to generate nitric acid. Dr. Priestley, (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,) detected nitric acid in snow. But of all atmospheric phenomena, the formation of meteorolites, or meteoric stones, is the most wonderful. If they be really formed in the atmosphere, there can be no doubt, that the elementary principles which compose them must exist in it; and that the phenomenon denominated meteoric, in such cases, is no other than the operating cause, by which meteoric stones are generated.[15]

Animal substances furnish azote, as it is one of their constituent parts; and in the act of its separation, by uniting with oxygen, principally furnished by the air, it forms nitric acid; which, attaching itself to the alkali of the vegetable matter, or the lime usually added to nitre beds, or to other salifiable bases, forms either nitrate of potassa, nitrate of lime, or a nitrate of the particular base. The lixiviation of the nitrous substances, and the use of wood ashes, or potash itself, will produce saltpetre.[16]

Brongniart has given the following process for purifying or refining saltpetre: Pulverize the impure nitre, and wash it three times in cold water, in the proportion of 35 lbs. of water, to 100 lbs. of the salt, taking care to pour off the water before another portion is added. These washings separate the greater part of the muriate of soda, and the deliquescent salts, such as nitrate of lime. When thus washed, the nitre is to be dissolved in half its weight boiling water. On cooling, the salt begins to crystallize, and, by agitating the liquid during the process, minute crystals are obtained. These crystals when dried are to be washed in 5 lbs. of cold water for every 100 lbs. of the salt, and then dried in a temperature of forty-five degrees.

In India, where nitrate of lime also occurs, but in situations different from those in the United States, the natives extract the saltpetre by a process similar to that we have described. They refine it by solution in water, evaporation, [63]and crystallization. In France, the potash of commerce is used; and the nitrates which are decomposed, are those principally of lime and magnesia.

According to the analysis of M. Pelletier, and the experiments of professor Vaizo, in 1781, they found the calcareous earth of the cave at Naples, to contain forty or forty-two to the hundred, of nitrate of potassa. (See Annales de Chimie, tome 23.)

In 1792, M. Pickel announced the discovery of native saltpetre, in a quarry in the neighbourhood of Wurtzburgh. M. de la Rochefoucald discovered nitre in the neighbourhood of chalk in France, in the departments of Seine and Oise. MM. Lavoisier and Clouet, made a number of researches with the same view. Since that time, saltpetre, or nitrous earth has been found in several of the departments of France; and it appears reasonable to conclude, that in all situations favourable to the generation of nitre, where the same causes operate, nitre must occur in more or less abundance.

From the rubbish of old buildings, saltpetre is obtained in some quantity. Old plaster is said to give five per cent. The soluble salts it contains, are six in number, viz: nitrate and muriate of lime, nitrate and muriate of magnesia, and nitrate of potassa, and muriate of soda. Now it is obvious, that besides the decomposition of the earthy nitrates, the earthy muriates also are decomposed by the potash, leaving in solution, besides muriate of soda, if it is not decomposed, by the potash, (which has this effect,) muriate, as well as the nitrate of potassa. To refine the saltpetre prepared in this manner, consists in separating the muriates. The proportions, in which these salts are to each other in a hundred parts, are stated by Thenard, (Traité de Chimie, Tome ii, p. 485,) to be ten, nitrate of potassa, seventy, nitrates of lime and magnesia, fifteen, marine salt, and five, muriates of lime and magnesia.

The mode of extracting saltpetre, and the various processes which have been adopted for refining it, in France, and on the continent generally, have but one object,—that of lixiviating the substances which afford it, and subsequently, separating all foreign salts. The best memoir was written by count Chaptal, occupying forty-seven pages in the Annales de Chimie, tome xx. In this he explains the theory at large. In the same work, tome xxiii, there is also a paper by Guyton, and many other memoirs of the same character. In Chaptal's Chimie Appliqué aux Arts, tome iv, p. 119, in Thenard's[64] Traité de Chimie, tome ii, p. 485, and in the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tome v, p. 173, the subject is ably treated.

We will now give the process of extracting saltpetre from the rubbish of old buildings, principally plaster, as adopted in France. The lixiviation, in the first place, is performed in the following manner: a certain number of casks or tubs, thirty-six for instance, is placed in three ranges. These tubs are pierced laterally near their bottom, by a hole of about half an inch in diameter, and closed with a cork; they are placed above a trough connected with a reservoir. There is put then into each tub a bucket full of the plaster, previously pounded, which is supported in the casks by cross sticks, a certain distance from the hole, so as not to obstruct the passage of the fluid. After this, a bushel of wood ashes is added, and the tubs are then filled with the plaster. Water is then put into the tubs of the first row, and after some time, the stop cocks are turned; water is then put into the tubs of another row, and the lixiviation is continued until the fluid indicates the zero of Beaumé's areometer. The saline waters, which are thus obtained, are divided into three parts, in proportion to their specific gravity, or quantity of salt they contain. The lixivium, of five degrees of the areometer, is known under the name of eaux de cuite. The waters, which are marked between three and five degrees, take the name of eaux de forte; and those below three degrees are called eaux faibles. According as the waters are weak, they are made to run through another range of tubs, in order to saturate them.

When strong and weak solutions are made to pass through the tubs in the same manner, proceeding from the second row to the third, and from the third to the first, the earths plaster, &c. being renewed, the lixiviation is not interrupted.

The lixiviation, it appears, is thus continued; for we obtain, at the same time, weak waters from the second row, the strong waters from the third, and the boiling waters, or those fit to be put into the boilers, from the first.

When a sufficient quantity of the strong solution is obtained, it is put into the copper, or boiler, and evaporated. During the evaporation, there is a scum formed, and sundry earthy substances, in the form of a mud, are deposited. This is usually caught in a vessel placed in the boiler, which is raised from time to time, by means of a rope, moved through a pulley, and fastened to a chain from the handles of the vessel. The solution is concentrated until it indicates the strength of twenty-five degrees of Beaumé's areometer. It is then mixed with the mother water of the preceding boiling, and a[65] concentrated solution of the potash of commerce is added, until the precipitation ceases. The sulphate of potassa may be used for the same purpose, at least to decompose the nitrate of lime; but it must be used in the first instance, and the operation finished in the common way, by the addition of potash. The precipitation being finished, that is to say, the nitrates of lime and magnesia, being transformed into nitrate of potassa, the hot liquor is then carried in a large tub, called the reservoir, and placed on the edge of the boiler. As soon as the insoluble salts, which the solution contains, are deposited there, which takes place immediately, the liquor is drawn off clear by cocks, which are adapted to the tubs, and received into the boiler, previously cleaned. The deposite obtained in the boiling, is washed with a certain quantity of the solution, which becomes clear, and is then mixed with the preceding liquor.

From what has been said, the liquor must contain a great quantity of nitrate of potassa, a small quantity of the salts of lime and magnesia, and all the marine salt contained in the plaster. It is frequently the case, that the liquor contains muriate of potassa, and a small quantity of sulphate of lime. It is, therefore, submitted again to evaporation. When it is at the forty-second degree of concentration, some part of the marine salt separates, which rises to the surface, and is taken off, and drained through an osier basket placed over the boiler. The solution being concentrated to the forty-fifth degree of the hydrometer, it is put into copper vessels, in which, by cooling, it crystallizes. The salt is then separated from the mother water, drained and coarsely bruised, and afterwards washed in a certain quantity of the first boiling. It is now in a state to be delivered to the central administration, under the name of crude saltpetre, or saltpetre of the first boiling.

The crude saltpetre contains about seventy-five per cent of nitrate of potassa. The quality may be determined by treating it with a saturated solution of pure nitrate of potassa, which cannot dissolve any more of the nitrate, but will dissolve any foreign salts. The twenty-five parts of the foreign substances, contained in the crude saltpetre, are composed of a large quantity of marine salt, and of a small portion of muriate of potassa. It is necessary to separate them, and other foreign substances. The operation for this purpose, is called the refining of saltpetre.

The refining of saltpetre is founded principally upon the property, which nitre has, of being more soluble in warm wa[66]ter, than the muriate of soda, and muriate of potassa. Thirty parts of saltpetre, and six parts of water are put into a boiler and the liquor is heated. By this means, there is precipitated a large quantity of marine salt mixed with muriate of potassa. A small quantity of water is added from time to time, to keep the nitre in solution.

When the foreign salt is not fully deposited, the liquor is clarified, and more water is added, sufficient to form ten parts, including that which has already been poured upon it. The liquor is removed, when it is clear and less heated, and put into copper vessels, where it is agitated to prevent crystallization, and to effect the pulverization of the saltpetre.

The saltpetre obtained by this process is not sufficiently pure. The purification is completed by washing it with water saturated with nitre, which dissolves the foreign substances. This washing is completed in a vessel, the bottom of which has been pierced with holes. The nitre, however, is left some hours in contact with the water, when the latter is permitted to run out. When the solution is of the same degree of concentration as that of the saturated water, the operation is finished. The nitre is dried for use.

The old process of refining saltpetre is thus described: Put into a copper, one hundred pounds of nitre, and fourteen gallons of water; let it boil gently half an hour, removing the scum as it forms; then stir it, and before it settles put it into filtering bags, which must be suspended from a rack. Put under the filters glazed earthen pans, to receive the liquor; in which place sticks for the crystals to form on. In two or three days, it will all crystallize.

In some saltpetre works, sulphate of potassa is used with advantage. This salt is furnished in abundance, by the combustion of a mixture of nitre and sulphur, in the manufacture of oil of vitriol. It forms the residue after the combustion. It is likewise produced in the preparation of nitric acid, in the decomposition of nitrate of potassa, by sulphuric acid. It may, therefore, be obtained in quantity, from the oil of vitriol manufacturers, and the aquafortis distillers. It is usually called vitriolated tartar.

It is known that sulphuric acid forms, with lime, an almost insoluble compound, called sulphate of lime, or gypsum; and hence, when sulphate of potassa is mixed with a solution of nitrate of lime, nitrate of potassa is formed, which remains in solution, and sulphate of lime is precipitated. The same effect takes place with all earthy nitrates. For the application of sulphate of potassa, in this way, we are indebted to[67] M. Berard. It might be advantageously employed in decomposing the calcareous nitrate of the nitre-caves of the western country.

M. Longchamp has recommended the use of sulphate of soda, or Glauber's salt, for decomposing the muriate of lime, which exists occasionally in impure nitre. These two salts reciprocally decompose each other; sulphate of lime is precipitated, and muriate of soda remains in solution. The latter is separated by evaporating the nitrous solution.

M. de Saluces (Mémoire de l'Académie des Sciences de Turin, Année, 1805 à 1808,) has proposed a new process for purifying nitre. It consists in filtering it through argillaceous earth, or clay. Although the process is highly spoken of, yet we can see no particular advantage it possesses.

Chaptal observes, that the process mostly in use is that of dissolving 2000 pounds of crude saltpetre in a copper boiler, in 1600 lbs. of water. As the solution is made by the heat, the scum, which forms, is taken off. Twelve ounces of glue, dissolved in ten pints of boiling water, and mixed with four pails full of cold water, are then added. This addition cools the solution. As to the manipulations of the process, they have been given. The principal thing to be attended to, is to separate the marine salt, which is done during the boiling.

To pass this saltpetre through a second operation, in order the more to purify it, it is again dissolved, in the proportion of 2000 pounds, in one-fourth of its weight of water. Heat is applied. The scum is separated; a solution of 8 ounces of glue in one or two pails full of water is then added. After the solution becomes clear, it is suffered to cool, and at the expiration of five days, it will crystallize, or form in a mass, which is then exposed to the air six or eight weeks to become completely dry.

In treating of the formation of nitre in France, Bottée and Riffault (Traité de l'Art de Fabriquer la Poudre à Canon,) consider it under the following heads:

1. The constituent principles of nitre; its generation, and the theories respecting it. In this article, the composition of nitric acid and its union with potassa, and the production of artificial nitre, are taken into view.

2. Nitrous earths, and substances which yield saltpetre. This subject comprehends a view of the substances, which contain saltpetre, as well as those which afford it by nitrification.

3. The preparation of the substances to produce saltpetre. This article relates to the manipulations required for the production of nitre.

[68]

4. The manner of lixiviating saltpetre earths. The lixiviation is an important part of the process, however simple it may appear; as upon its accuracy depends the quantity of the product.

5. The treatment of the different waters (lixiviums) with potash, sulphate of potassa, and wood-ashes. This article points out the use of potash in decomposing the earthy salts, such as nitrate of lime; of sulphate of potassa, which converts the nitrate of lime by double decomposition into nitrate of potassa, the sulphate of lime being precipitated; and of wood-ashes, which act in the same manner as potash, as they contain this alkali.

6. The evaporation of saltpetre waters, and the crystallization of nitre. In this article, they consider the separation of foreign alkaline salts, as muriate of soda, and the crystallization of the nitre, to obtain it in a state of purity.

7. The treatment of the mother water of crystallization. This article refers to the manner of using the mother water, in order to obtain more nitre from it, and its employment in lieu of fresh water for other lixiviums.

8. The refining of saltpetre by the old process. They describe here the old process, in which a variety of substances were used to purify the saltpetre, but which is now generally abandoned, or laid aside.

9. The process of refining saltpetre, as adopted in the establishments of the administration. Under this head they give, in detail, the process employed throughout France, as uniform and the same, in every refinery.

10. The manner of proceeding in the examination of various kinds of saltpetre in the magazines of the administration. This article relates to the different modes of examining saltpetre.

11. On the manufacture of potash and pearlash. This subject is important, as potash is an indispensable article in the preparation of saltpetre, and the formation of the alkali may be considered as of primary magnitude in establishments, conducted upon so large a scale as those of France.

It is thus, that a regular system is adopted, by the French government, for the production of saltpetre; and we may add also, for the manufacture of gunpowder, which we notice in that article.

It may be proper to mention some facts, respecting the formation of nitre-beds, and the means adopted, in this way, to obtain saltpetre, and to offer, at the same time, some observations on this mode of obtaining nitre.

[69]

The Mémoires de l'Académie des Sciences, 1720, contain the observations of M. Bouldoc, relative to the process of lixiviating saltpetre earths. Lacourt published a pamphlet some years after, entitled, Instruction concernant la Fabrication du Saltpetre. Various dissertations appeared on the same subject. In 1775, the French Academy of Sciences proposed a prize-question, which produced a more thorough investigation. The Memoirs of Thouvenal, of the Chevalier de Lorgna, and of MM. de Chevrand, and Ganivel, were highly approved, some of which took the prize. Chaptal, who has done more, perhaps, than any other person in France, to promote this all-important object, published, in 1794, an excellent dissertation, founded on experiment and observation. This Memoir was published in the Journal des Arts et Manufactures, t. iii, p. 12.

Kirwan (Geological Essays, p. 143,) remarks, that the saline crust, which is found on the walls of the houses of Malta, is owing to the walls being built of fine grained limestone. When wetted with sea-water, it never dries. The crust is nitrate of potassa, nitrate of lime, and muriate of soda, and is some tenths of an inch thick. Under this crust, the stone moulders into dust. When the first falls off, it is succeeded by a second, and so on, until the whole stone is destroyed. This particular effect, however, is attributed to the presence of marine salt.

Mr. Kirwan observes, that, "M. Dolomieu shows, at the end of his Tract on the Lipari Islands, that the atmosphere of Malta, in some seasons, when a south wind blows, is remarkably fouled with mephitic air; and, at other times, when a north wind blows, remarkably pure; and hence, of all others, most fit for the generation of nitrous acid." Mr. Kirwan remarks, "How the alkaline part of the nitre, which is one of the products resulting from the decomposition of this stone, is formed, is as yet mysterious: Is it not from the tartarin lately discovered in clays and many stones?" He adds, after speaking of animal and vegetable decomposition, "I should rather suppose, that the alkali is conveyed into these earths by the putrid air, than newly formed; and the reason is, that tartarin, (potash,) notwithstanding its fixity, is also found in soot; and, in the same manner, may be elevated in putrid exhalations."

Artificial nitre-beds consist of the refuse of animal and vegetable substances, undergoing putrefaction, mixed with calcareous earth; the refuse of old buildings, particularly plaster; earths from the vicinity of inhabited buildings; blood,[70] urine, &c. They are covered, from the rain, by a shed, open at the sides. Cramer, an author of credit, informs us, that he made a little hut, with windows to admit the wind. In this, he put a mixture of garden mould, the rubbish of lime, and putrid animal and vegetable substances. He frequently moistened them with urine, and in a month or two found his composition very rich in saltpetre, yielding at least one-eighth part of its weight. The practice of obtaining nitre from nitre beds, was followed in France and Germany. It is extracted and refined by the process already given.

When oxygen gas is presented to azote at the moment of its liberation, nitric acid is formed. As ammonia is the result of animal putrefaction, or is formed in the process, hydrogen must unite also with azote. The azote is furnished by the animal substances. These facts being known, we are enabled to account for the generation of nitric acid, and, consequently, of the earthy and other nitrates, in artificial nitre beds.

In noticing this subject, it is unnecessary to quote the opinion of Stahl, who believed that there was but one acid in nature, the sulphuric; and that nitric acid was the sulphuric acid, combined with phlogiston, which he affirmed was produced by putrefaction; nor is it necessary to mention the opinion of Lemery, who believed that nitre exists ready formed in animals and vegetables by the processes of vegetation and animalization. The experiments of the French philosophers have put these opinions at rest.

Thouvenal discovered, that nothing more was necessary for the production of nitre than a basis of lime, heat, and open air; so that nitre beds, formed of putrefying animal and vegetable substances, with the conditions thus stated, must produce saltpetre; a fact which experience abundantly justifies.

The process for the formation of nitre, is called nitrification.

Although animal substances, by putrefaction, furnish azote, and nascent azote unites with facility with the oxygen of the atmosphere, by which nitric acid is generated—(hence the spontaneous decomposition of nitre composts)—yet Vauquelin is of opinion, that the presence of calcareous or alkaline substances is indispensable, and that the production of carbonate of ammonia from the animal matter, is another compound, which results from the same decomposition. Ammonia is produced by the union of azote and hydrogen, and carbonic acid by that of carbon and oxygen. He considers then, that the presence of lime, magnesia, potash, &c. determines[71] the union of the azote with oxygen, and of course, the formation of nitric acid; and as this acid unites with one or other of these substances, according to circumstances, we have either nitrate of lime, or of magnesia, or nitrate of potassa. The idea that water is decomposed in the change which animal and vegetable substances undergo, in the process of nitrification, is contrary to observation; for the presence of air in dry situations, is indispensable to the process.

If a compost, made up of animal, vegetable, and calcareous substances, and put in small beds or heaps, and covered with a shed open at both sides, be frequently turned to admit new surfaces to the air, and occasionally moistened with urine, &c.—nitric acid will be generated as the putrefaction goes on. When this process is suffered to proceed until the decomposition is complete, and the beds then lixiviated, the quantity of nitre will be considerable. In all cases, we are to observe, that, as various earthy nitrates are produced, and mostly nitrate of lime, potash, or wood-ashes which contain this alkali, are to be used.

It was long since shown by Glauber, that a vault plastered over with a mixture of lime, wood-ashes, and cows' dung, soon becomes covered with efflorescent nitre; and that, after some months, the materials yield, on lixiviation, a considerable proportion of this salt. M. de Roder, speaking of nitrous walls, observes, that the efflorescence of nitre on them is in consequence of the stone, lime, and sand employed in the building.

What is denominated the saltpetre rot, is an efflorescence observed on the walls of old buildings, and on the ground. Dr. C. F. Gren, professor at Halle, in Saxony, (Principles of Modern Chemistry, vol. ii, p. 128), very justly remarks, that, among the matters capable of corruption, those are the most convenient in making nitre, which contain the greatest portion of azote, of which animal substances are the first; among which he enumerates flesh, blood, skins, excrements of animals, old woolen stuffs, and urine. He also mentions marsh plants, green herbs, mud from streets trodden by cattle, and the ground from marshes or bogs. As a compost he adds, that the ground from church-yards, where corpses have successively, and during a long series of years, undergone corruption, would be the best for artificial nitre beds. On the subject of nitre beds, the reader may consult the Recueil de Mémoires et de Pièces sur la formation et la fabrication du saltpetre, à Paris, 1786, 4to. These remarks on the generation of nitre, although of more ancient date, are[72] confirmed by James and Herman Boerhaave, (Chemistry, &c.) Hoffman, (de Salium Medicorum, et de Præstantissima Nitri Virtute), Stahl, (de Usu Nitri Medico), Neuman, (chemical works), and Lewis, (Materia Medica)—all of whom have written more or less on the formation of saltpetre; to which we may add the observations of Parr, (London Medical Dictionary, vol. ii, p. 24.)

The process for extracting saltpetre from damaged gunpowder is nothing more than putting it into a boiler, and adding water sufficient to cover it. On applying heat, the nitre will be dissolved. If any scum forms, it must be removed. When the solution is effected, pour it on a sufficient number of filters, and collect the fluid which passes through. The residue may be treated with more water, and the whole again filtered. After boiling the solution, set it aside to crystallize. The sulphur may be recovered, by subliming the residue in a temperature not sufficient to inflame it. The charcoal may be used again for the same purpose.

Saltpetre, when properly refined, does not contain any foreign salts, and its purity may be known by a variety of experiments, as follows: make a solution of the salt in distilled water, and filter it through paper. Put a portion of it in a wine glass, and add a solution of carbonate of potassa. To another portion, add a small quantity of muriate, or in preference, nitrate of barytes. To a third portion, add nitrate of silver. If the fluid in the first glass remains clear, without any turbidness, we are to infer the non-existence of earthy salts; if turbid, that it contains lime, or some other earth, either in the form of a nitrate or muriate. The addition of oxalate of potassa to another portion of the solution will show the presence of lime by forming a precipitate, and the addition of carbonate of ammonia, and then of phosphate of soda, will indicate magnesia. If the second glass remains transparent, it shows that neither sulphuric acid, nor any of the sulphates are present. If the fluid in the third glass continues also clear, we infer that none of the muriates exist. These experiments are sufficient to show the purity of saltpetre. It would afford perhaps more satisfaction to institute also the same experiments on other samples of nitre, by which a comparison may be formed of the relative purity of each. To make an analysis of the salt, with the view to determine the proportion of the foreign substances would be altogether unnecessary for common purposes. A regularly defined crystal would, in a great measure, point out its purity. The double refined saltpetre is chemically[73] pure. Artificers determine the purity of nitre by its flame; if white, they call it pure, if yellow, impure.

The same reagents may be used in the examination of gunpowder, as we shall notice hereafter. If a portion of powder be mixed with distilled water, the water will dissolve only the saline substances, leaving the charcoal and sulphur. When the whole is thrown on a filter, the fluid, which passes through, will contain the saltpetre, and foreign salts, if any are present. The same experiments may then be performed with the solution, and the quality of the nitre, of which the gunpowder was made, be determined. Some gunpowder absorbs a large portion of water, which is owing to the presence of deliquescent salts. These salts may be detected by proceeding in the way we have pointed out. The art of refining saltpetre is so well known of late in the United States, especially by the Messrs. Dupont of Brandywine, Delaware, that our gunpowder is of a very superior quality. I have examined various specimens of this saltpetre, and gunpowder made with it, and could not detect any of the sulphates or muriates, either alkaline or earthy. For the manufacture of gunpowder, and fire-works generally, the nitre, it may be observed, cannot be too pure.

In pyrotechny, it is necessary to have the nitre in powder. Pulverizing it in a mortar is a tedious method, if a large quantity is required for use. There is an advantage, likewise, in the mode we will describe; because the saltpetre, besides being extremely fine, is made perfectly dry. Put into a copper kettle, whose bottom must be spherical, fourteen pounds of refined saltpetre, with two quarts or five pints of water. Put the kettle on a slow fire, and if any impurities rise and form a scum, remove them; keep constantly stirring with two large spatulas, till the water evaporates, and the nitre is reduced to a powder. This will be perfectly white, and almost impalpable. If it should boil too fast, remove the kettle, and set it on wet sand, which will also prevent the nitre from adhering to the pot. It should be kept in a dry place. This process of powdering saltpetre is performed on a large scale for the manufacture of gunpowder.

Sec. II. Of Nitrate of Soda.

This salt has been recommended in lieu of nitre, for preparing certain fire-works; but we confess, we can see no particular advantage in using it. It has the property of attracting humidity from the air, and on that account is rendered[74] unfit for the manufacture of gunpowder. This salt is composed of nitric acid and soda. It was formerly called cubic nitre. It may be formed, very readily, by saturating nitric acid with soda, and evaporating the solution. It crystallizes in rhomboidal prisms. It may be formed more economically, by mixing together the solutions of nitrate of lime and sulphate of soda, filtering the mixture, and evaporating the filtered liquor. It will be sufficient to observe, that it deliquesces, or absorbs moisture, and in the fire, that its phenomena are the same as those of nitre. It does not melt so readily.

Used in the same proportion as nitre, it will form a gunpowder, which soon, however, spoils by exposure. It will, like nitre, communicate a yellow colour to the flame of alcohol. Experiments were made with this salt, with the view to the fabrication of gunpowder, by MM. Bottée and Riffault. Their conclusions, as we have stated, may be seen in their work on gunpowder. Professor Proust says, that five parts of nitrate of soda, with one of charcoal, and one of sulphur, will burn three times as long as common powder, so as to form an economical composition for fire-works.

The cubic nitre, and the nitrum flammans were known, and so called, by the older chemists. The former we have seen, is the nitrate of soda, and the latter, is a combination of nitric acid and ammonia. Nitrate of soda, consists of 6.75 acid + 3.95 soda.

Nitrate of ammonia possesses the property of exploding; and, when exposed to a temperature of about six hundred degrees, is decomposed, furnishing the nitrous oxide, called also the protoxide of azote, and exhilarating gas, besides water. Nitrate of ammonia is composed of 6.75 acid + 2.13 ammonia + 1.125 water.

Sec. III. Of Chlorate of Potassa.

This salt, formerly called hyperoxymuriate of potassa, is used for sundry preparations, and especially for experimental fire-works. It is prepared by dissolving one part of carbonate of potassa in six parts of water, and saturating it with chlorine, formerly called oxymuriatic acid gas. This operation is usually performed in a Woulfe's apparatus. The gas, as it proceeds from the retort or gas bottle, is brought in contact with, and passes through, the fluid. It is formed by pouring liquid muriatic acid on the black oxide of manganese, or by pouring sulphuric acid on a mixture of muriate of soda, and the black oxide. When the saturation is nearly[75] complete, crystals fall down. These being dissolved in boiling water, and the solution allowed to stand, pure chlorate of potassa will be formed.

This salt is composed of 9.5, chloric acid, and 6 potassa; and chloric acid is formed of 28.87, chlorine, and 32.28, oxygen. It is to the oxygen in the salt, that its particular properties in fire-works are to be ascribed.

This salt is decomposed by all combustible bodies, and detonations generally accompany the decomposition. Hence it is used in a variety of experiments, some of which we will give.

Three parts of the salt and one of sulphur detonate when rubbed in a mortar. The same mixture, struck with a hammer on an anvil, produces a loud explosion. Phosphorus detonates with this salt either by trituration or percussion. The quantity of each should not exceed a grain. Treated in the same manner with almost all the metals, the same effect takes place. Cinnabar, antimony, pyrites, &c. produce the same effect. Nitric acid, poured on a mixture of this salt with phosphorus, produces flashes of fire. A mixture of the chlorate and white sugar, when touched with sulphuric acid, immediately inflames. Hence it is used in the preparation of pocket lights; the mixture being put on a common sulphur match, and immersed in sulphuric acid. The same preparation of sugar and chlorate of potassa, put over a tube used for firing artillery, will set fire to the priming fuse, by dropping on it sulphuric acid. Owing to this effect, M. Gassicourt (Archives des Découvertes), recommended a similar mixture for discharging cannon by means of this acid. As it contains a large quantity of oxygen, that gas may be obtained from it by distillation. Light decomposes it. It should, therefore, be excluded from the light.

As this salt, when mixed with inflammable substances, detonates when struck with a hammer, it has been used for the purpose of inflaming gunpowder without the use of the flint and steel. There are several formulæ given for the purpose. We remarked, when treating of the general theory of fire-works, that the Rev. Alexander Forsyth discovered a new kind of gunpowder, which inflames merely by percussion; that the gun-lock, which he contrived, was calculated for firing cannon, as well as musquetry; that it was so contrived as to hold forty primings of such powder; and that the act of raising the cock primes the piece. In his composition, each charge of priming contains no more than one-eighth of a grain of chlorate of potassa. Since that period, it appears,[76] that the lock, as well as the powder, has been improved, although neither of them is in general use. Thenard, (Traité de Chimie, tome ii, p. 559, troisième édition), has given a formula for preparing a priming powder of this salt, adapted to the new lock, which is made by mixing it with 0.55 of nitrate of potassa, 0.33 of sulphur, 0.17 of the raspings of peach-wood passed through a fine sieve, and 0.17 of lycopodium, or puffball. (See Inflammable Powder.)

This salt also produces powerful effects with charcoal and sulphur. Three parts of it, with half a part of sulphur, and half a part of charcoal powder, produce most violent explosions. Two persons, in 1788, lost their lives by it. If this mixture be thrown into concentrated sulphuric acid, a brilliant flame is produced. Such mixtures, we are informed, will explode spontaneously. It should not, for that reason, be kept prepared. Chlorate of potassa has been used in the place of nitre, for the manufacture of gunpowder, in consequence of its decomposition by charcoal. From its explosive effects, M. Berthollet was induced to propose it as a substitute for nitre. The proportions used by Chaptal, (Chimie Appliqué aux Arts, tome iv, p. 198), are six parts of chlorate of potassa, one of sulphur, and one of charcoal. They are to be mixed in a marble mortar with a wooden pestle. The first experiment was made at Essone, in France, in 1788. No sooner, however, had the workmen begun to triturate the mixture, than it exploded with violence, and killed two persons.

The force of this gunpowder is greater than that of the common sort; but the danger of preparing it, and even of using it, is so great, that these circumstances will always prevent its introduction. A salt, containing so much oxygen, and so loosely combined, that even the slightest friction, in contact with inflammable bodies, will separate it, must, of necessity, prevent its use in that way.

The experiments, which were made at the arsenal at Paris, on the 27th of April, 1793, comparing the effects of muriated powder, and the superfine common powder, have given us the following results:

1st. By the eprouvette of Darcy, consisting of a cannon, which, being suspended to the extremity of a bar of iron, described by its recoil an arc, of which the degrees can be measured.

From these results, it appears, that, by the eprouvette of Darcy, the muriated powder, or that prepared with chlorate of potassa, gave a superiority of force of about one-fourth.

2nd. By the eprouvette of Regnier, which is repelled by the explosion, to a distance greater or less, measured by the degrees of the arc which it describes:

From which it results, that by the eprouvette of Regnier, the force of the powder of the oxymuriate is double that of the nitrate, or common powder.

M. Ruggieri is of opinion, that chlorate, or hyperoxymuriate of potassa may be employed with advantage in the composition of rockets, but we have not heard that it has been used. It is more powerful in its effects, and probably for this reason he recommended it. This salt, mixed with other substances, will produce the green fire of the palm-tree, in imitation of the Russian fire.

Chloric acid may be obtained in a separate state, by boiling the compound solution formed by passing chlorine gas through a solution of barytic earth, with phosphate of silver, which separates the muriatic acid. By evaporation, the chlorate of barytes will crystallize in fine rhomboidal prisms. When these crystals are dissolved in water, and diluted sulphuric acid added by degrees, an acid liquid will be obtained, which, if the sulphuric acid be added cautiously, will be found entirely free from the latter acid and barytes, and not affected by nitrate of silver. This is the chloric acid dissolved in water. Chloric acid unites with sundry bases. Combined with ammonia, it forms a fulminating salt, formerly described by M. Chenevix. This salt is formed, by mixing together carbonate of ammonia, and chlorate of lime. The carbonate of lime is then separated by the filter, and the clear liquid, holding the chlorate of ammonia in solution, is evaporated. Chlorate of ammonia is very soluble in water and alcohol, and decomposed by a moderate heat.

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Chlorates, as the chlorate of potassa, are formed more readily in the manner already stated: viz. by saturating the base with chlorine, but in this case two salts are produced, the chlorate and hydrochlorate. Chloric acid has also been obtained in a separate state, from chlorate of potassa, by a process recommended by Mr. Wheeler.

Perchloric acid, composed of seven primes of oxygen and one of chlorine, is obtained from chlorate of potassa, treated in a particular manner. Three parts of sulphuric acid and one of chlorate of potassa, when heated, will give a saline mass, consisting of bisulphate of potassa, and perchlorate of potassa. Deutoxide of chlorine will be evolved. The perchlorate detonates feebly when triturated with sulphur.

Sec. IV. Sulphur.

Sulphur, or brimstone, is a principal ingredient in almost all the compositions of fire-works. It should, therefore, be pure. The flowers may be considered the purest kind of sulphur.

Sulphur is found native, either alone, or accompanying certain minerals, such as gypsum, rock-salt, marl, and clay, as in Switzerland, Poland, and Sicily. In the neighbourhood of salt-springs, it is also found; and frequently in water, in combination with hydrogen, forming the natural hepatic waters. It is also found on the surface of the earth, as in Siberia. Volcanic sulphur, or that which occurs in the fissures and cavities of lava, near the craters of volcanoes, is very common.

Solfatere, Sicily, the Roman states, Guadaloupe, and Quito, in the Cordilleras, are most celebrated for native sulphur. It has been found in the United States, but in no quantity. We have a number of mineral springs, which deposite sulphur. The Clifton Springs of Ontario are of this kind. It occurs abundantly, in combination with hydrogen, as sulphuretted hydrogen gas, in various parts of the United States.

Native sulphur is abundant in the island of Java. It is obtained from the now almost extinct volcano, about sixty miles from the town of Batavia. At the bottom of the crater, there is said to lie many hundred tons of native sulphur. Silliman (Journal, vol. i, p. 58) observes, that it is in the crater of this volcano, that the celebrated lake of sulphuric acid exists, "and from which it flows down the mountain, and through the country below, a river of the same acid."

Sulphur, however, is usually obtained from pyrites or me[79]tallic sulphurets, by fusion and sublimation. It is usually denominated by the name of the place whence it comes. Hence we have the Italian and Sicilian sulphur; the crude, roche, or stone brimstone of Marseilles, &c.

The quantity of sulphur, which may be obtained from the galena, or sulphuret of lead, by sublimation, is considerable. Twenty-five per cent is the loss sustained in the reduction of the lead ore, which occurs so abundantly in the neighbourhood of St. Louis. When general, the then lieut. Pike, (Expeditions, &c. Appendix) interrogated Mr. Dubuque in 1805, respecting the quantity of lead obtained from those mines, a detailed account of which is given by Schoolcraft, he replied that the mineral would yield seventy-five per cent. of lead, and hence the twenty-five per cent. loss must be the sulphur, together with any foreign matter it may contain.

The experiments of M. Vauquelin, (Annales de Chimie, 1811) to determine the quantity of sulphur contained in some metallic sulphurets, show, at once, the proportion which may be obtained from those combinations. Thus he found, that sulphuret of copper contains 21.31 per cent of sulphur; sulphuret of tin, 14.1; sulphuret of lead, 13.77; sulphuret of silver, 12.73; sulphuret of iron, 22; sulphuret of antimony, 25; sulphuret of bismuth, 31.75; sulphuret of manganese, 74.5; and sulphuret of arsenic, 43.

Of native or prismatic sulphur, there are two species, the common and volcanic. The former is of two kinds, the compact and earthy.

Sulphur, says Hanway, (Travels, &c.) is dug at Baku on the western side of the Caspian sea. It is found in the neighbourhood of the celebrated naphtha springs, some of which form a mouth of 8 or 10 feet diameter.

Von Humboldt (Annales de Museum National) communicated to the French national institute, that he discovered, in the province of Quito, a bed composed of sulphur and quartz, in a mountain of mica slate, and also sulphur in primitive porphyry. Kirwan (Geological Essays, p. 143) observes, that sulphur promotes decomposition, by absorbing oxygen, while it is thus converted into vitriolic acid; but moisture is also requisite. He attributes, in the same manner, the decomposition of stones that contain pyrites.

As the sulphur, which occurs in commerce, is chiefly obtained from its native combinations, it may be proper to make some brief remarks on this head. Sulphur in the state of combination is abundantly met with, and in all countries. It is found in the state of sulphuric acid, in various salts, as gypsum, epsom salt, native alum, &c.; and united with me[80]tals, forming natural sulphurets, as in sulphuret of iron, or iron pyrites, sulphuret of copper, or copper pyrites, sulphuret of lead, or potter's lead ore, called also galena, sulphuret of antimony, or crude antimony, sulphuret of zinc, or blende, sulphuret of mercury, or cinnabar, sulphuret of arsenic, or orpiment, &c. In fact, it appears to be a general mineralizer. It is found also in some plants, and in animal substances.

Without detailing minutely the processes employed for extracting sulphur from its combinations, which may be seen in Thenard, (Traité de Chimie, tome i, p. 184) it will be sufficient to observe, that, in general, pyrites, both of iron and copper, are arranged in alternate layers in the form of a pyramid, and the roasting is continued for several months. Part of the sulphur is consumed, and part is sublimed, and is condensed and collected in hollows, in the upper part of the pyramid, whence it is removed several times a day. It is also obtained from pyrites, by a kind of distillation. They are reduced to coarse powder, and put into hollow iron cylinders, or retorts, where the sulphur is disengaged and melted, and thence runs into vessels of water. This process is employed in Saxony, where nine hundred pounds of pyrites will yield one hundred to one hundred and fifty pounds of sulphur, which is afterwards purified.

When melted and cast into wooden moulds, it forms the roll brimstone; and, by sublimation, conducted in large chambers, as we shall afterwards mention, it is converted into the flowers of sulphur. The residue of the sublimation is sulphur vivum, which is also used in fire-works. The roll brimstone is frequently adulterated.

In the island of Anglesea, it is obtained by the sublimation of the yellow copper ore. The operation is conducted in kilns, and the sulphur is conveyed by means of long horizontal flues, and collected in large chambers. As the United States furnish an abundance of martial pyrites, and also galena, sulphur might be manufactured in this country, and advantageously, especially from galena, which is very abundant in the neighbourhood of St. Louis. In the roasting of the ore, all the sulphur is now lost, tons of which might be collected.

For the purpose of gunpowder, the purer the sulphur, the better will be the powder; hence attention is always paid to this circumstance. M. Michel, one of the principal refiners of sulphur at Marseilles, has improved the process for purifying sulphur for the purpose of gunpowder. M. Libaw, connected likewise with the French national powder establishment, has furnished a very useful and important memoir on the same subject.

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Two methods are proposed for the refining of sulphur, which we will briefly state, namely, fusion, and sublimation. The first is conducted in iron pots fixed in a furnace; and the sulphur, before it is thrown in, is beaten into small pieces with a mallet. This facilitates the fusion, and renders it more uniform. Small portions at a time are thrown into the boiler, and stirred frequently with a wooden spatula. This manipulation ought to be continued till the boiler is filled. The heat must be regulated so as not to inflame, or sublime the sulphur.

The sulphur of commerce is commonly of three different colours, viz: citron-yellow, deep yellow, and brownish-yellow. These colours depend on the different degrees of heat to which the sulphur was exposed, in its extraction. The operation of refining consists in conducting the fire in such a manner, as that the colour of the sulphur will assume a brilliant yellow, bordering on a green. We must, therefore, to produce this effect, operate on the sulphur according to its colour. For the green sulphur, as little heat has been used for its extraction, the fire may be left under the boiler until there is no more left to melt than the top. The sulphur of the yellow colour may be kept longer on the fire, which may be removed when the mass is melted three-fourths. The sulphur of a brown colour, being already much burnt, may be removed when the mass is melted one-half. If it is required to operate on all the varieties at the same time, in order to produce sulphur of a uniform colour, in that case we must fill the boiler one-half with the green sulphur, one-fourth with the yellow, and the remainder with the brown, and removing the fire when the yellow is almost wholly melted. The boiler is then covered with a lid. The fusion is completed by the heat of the mass. The light bodies then raise themselves to the surface, forming a black scum, which is removed, and the heavy bodies fall to the bottom. The boiler remains for four or five hours, uncovering it from time to time to take off the scum. The fluid part is removed, and is suffered to congeal, taking care not to disturb the deposite.

The second process of refining is by sublimation. This operation consists in subliming it in a close apparatus, which in sulphur refineries are boilers placed in brick work, and furnished with heads. These heads communicate by a pipe with a vaulted chamber, placed at some distance from the furnace. The chamber serves to collect the sulphur. There is usually a stone slab fixed between the chamber and the[82] head. The chamber is furnished with one or two iron-plate valves. There is an opening in the head of each boiler, in order to renew the sulphur: it is closed very tight by a plate of iron. There is an opening also in the chamber, to admit a person, which is closed likewise by an iron plate. The heads are luted before the process is commenced.

By this process the sulphur is refined; for the pure part is sublimed, and the foreign substances remain in the pots. The product thus obtained is the ordinary flowers of sulphur. If the heat be moderate, the sublimation is more perfect. It is necessary at the same time that the temperature of the chamber should be low, otherwise the sulphur will melt, which frequently takes place. Coarse particles are separated from the flour, should they occur, by a sieve.

During the first part of the process, there is formed some sulphurous acid gas, which is not produced after the vapour of sulphur forms the atmosphere in the head. This is known to exist, by the acid taste of the sulphur, and its black colour.

Detonation very frequently takes place, and sulphurous acid gas is produced. In the sublimation of brimstone, about ten to eleven per cent. is the usual total loss, of which six or seven per cent. is residue. The acid may be separated from the sulphur by washing it in water, and afterwards drying it. It is then called the washed flowers of sulphur. (See Traité de l'Art de Fabriquer la Poudre à Canon, p. 153.) by MM. Bottée and Riffault, for a minute description of this process.

Sulphur undergoes no change by exposure to the air. It is insoluble in water. It breaks in the hand with a crackling noise. At 170 degrees it begins to evaporate, and when collected it is called sublimed, or flowers of sulphur. It melts at 218 degrees. When melted and poured into water, it forms the sulphurs for taking the impression of coin, &c. If melted, and cooled slowly, it will crystallize in the form of needles. It is soluble in different degrees in alcohol, ether, and oils. When sulphur is burnt very slowly in the open air, it unites with oxygen and forms sulphurous acid. This acid is used in bleaching. When mixed with nitre, and burnt in leaden chambers, it forms sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, by which process it combines with a larger quantity of oxygen. There is another compound called hyposulphurous acid, all the salts of which are inflammable and burn with a blue flame. Sulphur unites with the alkalies, earths, and metals. If the alkaline sulphurets be dissolved[83] in water, and an acid added, the sulphur will precipitate of a white colour, known by the name of milk of sulphur. It is considered by some a hydrate of sulphur. The same preparation is made by subliming sulphur in a vessel containing the vapour of water. Sulphur unites with chlorine and iodine, forming chlorides, and iodides. With hydrogen, it forms the sulphuretted hydrogen, or hepatic gas, called also the hydrothionic and hydrosulphuric acid; with carbon, the sulphuret of carbon; and with nitre and charcoal, in the state of mixture, it constitutes gunpowder.

The motionless ignes fatui of Italy, which are seen nightly on the same spot, are attributed to the slow combustion of sulphur, emitted through clefts and apertures in the soil of that volcanic country; but the Will-with-the-Wisp, which moves in undulations, near the surface of the ground, in swampy situations, and where the putrefactive process is going on, originates in all probability from decaying vegetable and other matters, and the extrication of phosphorus. It is known that the acid of phosphorus is found in plants, and especially those that grow in marshy places, in turf, and several species of the white woods.

Mealing of Brimstone. What is termed the mealing of sulphur by fire-workers, is no other than reducing it, if it be the roll, to powder. Large mortars and pestles made of ebony, and other hard wood, and horizontal mills with brass wheels are used. The mealing table is used by artificers. It is generally made of elm, with a rim around its edge four or five inches high. One end is narrow, and furnished with a slider that runs in a groove, and forms part of the rim. After using as much of the powdered brimstone as is required, copper shovels being employed, the rest may be swept out at the slider. This table is also used for the mealing of gunpowder and saltpetre. The muller is generally made of ebony. After reducing it to powder, it is then passed through a lawn sieve, furnished with a cover.

As brimstone is frequently adulterated with different substances, it may be of importance to discover the fraud. We may remark, that, if it is pure, it will be taken up entirely by chlorine gas, or by using a solution of caustic potassa. The latter, however, cannot be depended on in all cases. But the best mode, is that of melting some of it in a ladle; if any residue remains, after the fumes have ceased, the presence of foreign substances may be inferred, for pure sulphur will sublime without leaving any residue. It is not unfrequently adulterated with common flour. There is another mode of[84] determining the quality of sulphur, It should, if pure, be completely soluble in boiling oil of turpentine. If any residue remain, we may infer the presence of foreign substances, either vegetable, earthy, or metallic.

It is obvious, that if the brimstone is impure, the effect of it in fire-works will be imperfect. Flowers of sulphur, however, may be almost always depended on. In all artificial fire, in which sulphur forms a part, the flame is more clear, as the sulphur is pure.

Several modes are recommended for the separation of sulphur from charcoal, in gunpowder, which may be seen by referring to the analysis, or chemical examination of gunpowder.

Sulphur constitutes one of the ingredients, generally speaking, of incendiary compositions, used for military purposes, and, in such cases, is usually mixed with pitch, tar, saltpetre, and sometimes gunpowder. It is said to be one of the substances, which entered into the composition of the ancient and celebrated Greek fire; but the principal character of which, that of burning in water, was owing to the presence of camphor. This substance, associated with sulphur, pitch, and nitre, forms one of the most effective incendiaries of all military fire-works. For such purposes, it is hardly necessary to add, that the common roll brimstone is sufficiently pure.

As to the mode of preparing these works, the custom is to melt the resinous substances first, then to add the sulphur, and finally the saltpetre; and after the whole are melted and thoroughly mixed, to remove the pot from the fire, and add gradually the gunpowder. If a carcass is to be made, tow or hemp, or untwisted rope, is immersed in the composition while hot, and taken out and formed into a ball of the size required. Rope, treated in the same manner, with the same composition, will make a more active tourteaux than the common kind. (See Carcass and Tourteaux.)

All oils, whether expressed or essential, can dissolve sulphur. To make this solution, the oil must be poured on the sulphur, and sufficient heat applied to melt the substance. While the oil dissolves the sulphur, it acquires a reddish or brown colour, an acrid, disagreeable taste, and a strong fetid smell, somewhat hepatic, resembling that of oil with sulphuric acid.

Sec. V. Of Phosphorus.

We mention this substance, because it is used in some experiments, although not in extensive fire-works. It is a very[85] inflammable substance, inflaming either by friction, or an increase of temperature. It produces a most brilliant fire, and when mixed with some substances, exhibits very pleasing phenomena. It usually comes to us in sticks, which must be constantly kept in water to prevent its inflammation. Phosphoric matches, phosphoric fire-bottles, &c. are made of it. These are made in various ways. Phosphorus and sulphur melted together in a small phial, forms the fire-bottle, or some add a portion of lime. A sulphur-match dipped in this mixture and gently rubbed, immediately inflames. They do not last any time, in consequence of the acidification of the phosphorus. Phosphoric tapers are usually made with a glass tube, on the breaking of which, it inflames. When rubbed upon a wall in a dark room, it appears very luminous. Dissolved in ether, and poured upon boiling water in the dark, the vapour as it ascends appears remarkably luminous, and has a pleasing effect. Dissolved in oil, as olive-oil, it forms the phosphorized oil, which may be rubbed on the face and hands without injury. This oil has the same appearance in the dark. The time of night may be known by the light it produces. When mixed with nitrate of silver, sulphuret of antimony, sulphur, chlorate of potassa, &c. and struck with a hammer, it produces an explosion more or less loud. A variety of explosive compounds may be made with it, but they must be used with great care.

When combined with hydrogen, it inflames spontaneously when brought in contact with atmospheric air. It inflames also in chlorine gas. It is supposed to be the cause of the ignes fatui, or Will-with-the-Wisp. The formation of phosphoretted hydrogen gas may be shown in a variety of ways, as the following: throw some pieces of phosphuret of lime into water, and bubbles of gas will rise, which will take fire on coming to the air; or, put into a flask some phosphorus, iron or zinc filings, water, and sulphuric acid, and the gas will be generated; or, introduce into a small retort, a solution of potassa, and a piece or two of phosphorus, and apply heat, immersing the beak of the retort in a basin of water, the gas will pass over, and inflame as it comes to the surface of the water. In all these experiments, the water is decomposed; its oxygen goes to a part of the phosphorus in the first experiment, and the hydrogen of the water then unites with another portion of phosphorus, which is then evolved; in the second experiment, the oxygen oxidizes the metal, and the hydrogen dissolves a part of the phosphorus; and in the third experiment, the phosphorus unites with the potassa, forming[86] a phosphuret, which decomposes the water, the hydrogen of which passes off in combination with some of the phosphorus, forming the phosphuretted hydrogen gas.

The cause of the spontaneous combustion is, that the oxygen of the atmosphere unites with the hydrogen and the phosphorus, and forms water and phosphoric acid; the latter producing a beautiful corona as it rises in the air. The heat and light given out proceeds as well from the oxygen gas, as from the phosphuretted hydrogen gas. When saturated with oxygen, it is no longer inflammable.

There are some other experiments which can be made with this singular substance.

It was formerly obtained from urine, as that fluid contains some phosphoric salts. It is now prepared from bones. These are burnt to an ash, and diluted sulphuric acid is poured on it; the phosphoric acid it contains is then disengaged, and remains in the fluid. The sulphate of lime is then separated, the fluid boiled to dryness, and the dry mass is mixed with charcoal, and distilled in the open fire.

The phosphoric pencil, for writing on a wall, paper, &c. to be luminous in the dark, is nothing more than a bit of phosphorus put into a quill. It must be kept in water, and when used, frequently dipped in water, to prevent its taking fire.

The phosphoric stone of M. Bucholz, described in the Archives des Découvertes, ii, p. 109, is a phosphuret of magnesia, prepared by melting thirty grains of phosphorus in a small flask, and adding twenty or thirty grains of calcined magnesia. Although this process is given by Bucholz, yet, as it is difficult to prevent the inflammation of the phosphorus, the best mode would be to bring the vapour of phosphorus in contact with magnesia, in the same manner as in preparing phosphuret of lime.

The pyrophorus of Wurzer is nothing than a phosphuret of lime. It is prepared by taking two parts of pulverized quicklime, and one part of phosphorus; introducing them into a bottle, and covering it with three parts of quicklime, leaving one-third of the bottle empty; then putting the bottle into a crucible surrounded with sand, previously stopping the mouth with clay, and applying heat. Remove the phial when the phosphorus appears to sublime of a red colour. When the bottle is opened it becomes luminous, and brought out it inflames.

Phosphorus in the state of acidification, and united with lime, is found in abundance. Whole mountains in the pro[87]vince of Estremadura in Spain, are said to be composed of this combination. According to Mr. Bowles, this stone is whitish and tasteless, and affords a blue flame without smell when thrown upon burning coals. Mr. Proust observes, that it is a dense stone, not hard enough to strike fire with steel, and is found in strata, which always lie horizontally upon quartz, and which are intersected with veins of quartz. He adds, that it does not decrepitate on burning coals, but burns with a beautiful green light. This stone is the common phosphorite. It contains, according to Klaproth, 32.25 per cent. of phosphoric acid.

Several substances are known under the name of phosphorus, although they do not contain it, such as Baldwin's phosphorus, or ignited muriate of lime, Canton's phosphorus, or oyster-shells calcined with lime, and Bologna phosphorus, or calcined sulphate of barytes.

Sec. VI. Of Charcoal.

Charcoal performs an important part in all the various kinds of fire-works. The facility with which it decomposes nitric acid, when it is combined with salifiable bases, as with potassa in saltpetre, and its action in all cases wherein nitre is concerned, are sufficient examples of its effect.

Pure carbon is the diamond. It affords by combustion in oxygen gas, the same gas as common charcoal, when charcoal is burnt in oxygen, or in atmospheric air. This gas is carbonic acid, or fixed air. Charcoal has been considered a long time an oxide of carbon, and according to some, as Berthollet, a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Charcoal is insoluble in water. It is not affected by the most violent heat, if confined in close vessels. It is an excellent conductor of electricity, but a bad conductor of heat. It is very indestructible; and, therefore, when wood is charred, it will remain a long time under ground without rotting. As an antiseptic, it is powerful. It will therefore prevent the putrefaction of bodies, and even recover tainted meat. As a preservative of water, for sea-voyages, it has been long known. The charring of water casks is designed for the same purpose. The quality of wine is said to be improved by having the casks previously charred. It possesses the property of absorbing gases, and to this property is ascribed its use as an antiseptic, and its disinfecting quality. To the distiller it is useful, as it destroys effectually the burnt or empyreumatic smell of liquor. When heated to eight hundred de[88]grees in the open air, it burns. In oxygen gas the combustion is brilliant, forming in both instances carbonic acid gas, called also aerial acid, fixed air, mephitic air, and calcareous acid. This acid is formed in a variety of processes, and is carbon saturated with oxygen.

Carbon exists in various states of combination, and many of the compounds into which it enters are inflammable; hence carbonic acid is generated in the combustion of coal, oils, fat, &c. In the form of an acid, it is abundant in various stones, such as the calcareous carbonates, as chalk, marble, limestone, and calcareous spar, barolite, &c. all which effervesce with acids, the carbonic acid being liberated. When limestone is burnt, to obtain quicklime, the carbonic acid is disengaged, for the presence of this acid distinguishes limestone from pure lime. Carbonic acid is generated in various processes of nature as well as art. Hence it is produced in the respiration of animals, and is found in a gaseous state in wells, cellars, caverns, &c. It neither supports animal life, nor combustion. In mines it is called choke damp; and the Grotto del Cani, in the kingdom of Naples, has been long celebrated, on account of it. This cave is in the side of a mountain, near the lake Agnano, measuring not more than eighteen feet from its entrance to the inner extremity; where if a dog or other animal that holds down its head be thrust, it is killed by the gas. Some experiments were made in this cave with gunpowder, which see. Carbonic acid, during the formation of alcohol, in the vinous fermentation, is generated, and its production appears to be designed by nature to carry off the excess of carbon, which gives rise to that phenomenon called fermentation. When combined with water, it forms aerated water, and with alkalies and water, the aerated alkaline waters. Its union with bases forms salts called carbonates. Plants have the property of decomposing it, and in this respect nature has employed a mean of regenerating the atmosphere, on the purity of which depends, in an eminent degree, the very existence of animal life. The prime equivalent of carbonic acid is 2.75, and carbonic acid is composed of carbon 0.75 + 2.0 oxygen.

Carbonic acid may be decomposed when combined with a base, as lime, by phosphorus and heat, for charcoal and a phosphate of lime will be produced. But carbonic acid in the state of gas may be decomposed by potassium. Five grains of potassium will decompose three cubic inches of gas, and be converted into potassa, producing at the same time three-eighths of a grain of charcoal. If passed over a coil of fine[89] iron wire heated to redness, in a porcelain tube, and the operation repeated, the iron will be oxidized, and the carbonic acid changed into carbonic oxide gas.

Charcoal will not burn in dry chlorine. It unites with a less proportion of oxygen, and forms carbonic oxide gas, which burns with a deep blue flame. This combination is formed by distilling in a red heat, a mixture of equal parts of iron filings and chalk. This gas mixed with chlorine gas, and exposed to the sun's rays, will unite with it, and form chlorocarbonic acid gas. Carbon unites with azote, and forms cyanogen, the base of Prussic acid. It unites likewise with hydrogen in two proportions, forming the hydroguret and the bihydroguret of carbon, both of which are carburetted hydrogen gases. The former is obtained by distilling a mixture of four parts of sulphuric acid, and one of alcohol. The gas is very inflammable, and burns with great splendour; and on that account may be used for exhibition, in an apparatus similar to that of Cartwright. (See Fire-works with Inflammable air.) It was called by the German chemists olefiant gas. The other species, called also the light carburetted hydrogen gas, may be obtained by agitating the mud at the bottom of stagnant pools; and by the distillation of moist charcoal, wood, pitcoal, pitch, or almost any animal or vegetable substance. The gas, used for gas-lights, is the same. It is usually obtained from pit coal. We may merely observe, that the gas used for that purpose, i. e. for illuminating streets, theatres, manufactures, &c. as obtained in the common method, is not altogether the bihydroguret of carbon; but, according to the experiments of Dr. Henry, a mixture of that gas with the hydroguret, and occasionally carbonic oxide.

Carbon enters into other combinations. It exists as a component part of gums, resins, sugar-starch, and other vegetable products, as the vegetable acids, its union with iron forms steel, a substance greatly used in the preparation of some fire-works, especially in some of the rains and stars, and in the composition of brilliant fire. (See Iron.)

As charcoal enters into the composition of gunpowder, and the effective force of powder depends considerably on the quality, as well as the proportion of charcoal, it is obvious for this purpose, it should be as pure as possible.

Carbon is always obtained from some of its combinations, as from pitch, tar, rosin, wood, and oil. Various processes are employed for this purpose. Thus, by the combustion of rosin and oil, as well as pitch, tar, turpentine, &c. a soot is[90] formed that collects, called lampblack, which is nothing more than the carbon or charcoal. When pit-coal is charred in an oven, called a coke oven, all the bitumen and sulphur contained in it are disengaged, and a charcoal remains, called, however, coke. Wood, when charred is decomposed; all the volatile parts are disengaged with carburetted hydrogen gas, and the woody fibre is converted into coal. This coal is more or less dense according to the compactness of the wood. Hard woods furnish the most solid coal, and light woods on the contrary.

When the solid parts of animals, as bone, are charred, the volatile products, principally ammonia or volatile alkali, are dissipated, and there remains a substance called bone-black, improperly called, ivory black.

The carbonization of wood in the common way is well known: after it is cut to the lengths required, it is piled on the ground in a pyramidal form, and covered with sod and clay, leaving a place for the current of air, and the smoke. The wood is then set on fire, and when the whole is burnt to a coal the vents, &c. are closed with sod and clay.

Nicholson (Chemical Dictionary) observes, that in the forest of Benon, near Rochelle, great attention is paid to the manufacture, so that the charcoal made there fetches twenty-five or thirty per cent. more than any other. The wood is that of the black oak. It is taken from ten to fifteen years old, the trunk as well as the branches, cut into billets about four feet long, and not split. The largest pieces, however, seldom exceed six or seven inches in diameter. The end that rests on the ground is cut a little sloping, so as to touch it merely with an edge, and they are piled nearly upright, but never in more than one story. The wood is covered all over about four inches thick with dry grass or fern, before it is enclosed in the usual manner with clay; and when the wood is charred, half a barrel of water is thrown over the pile, and earth to the thickness of five or six inches is thrown on, after which it is left four-and-twenty hours to cool. The wood is always used in the year in which it is cut.

Turf or peat has been charred lately in France, it is said, by a peculiar process, and, according to the account given in Sonnini's Journal, is superior to wood for this purpose. Charcoal of turf kindles slower than that of wood, but emits more flame, and burns longer. It boiled a given quantity of water four times, while an equal weight of wood charcoal boiled the same quantity but once. In a goldsmith's furnace, it fused eleven ounces of gold in eight minutes, while wood[91] charcoal required sixteen. The malleability of the gold, too, was preserved in the former instance, but not in the latter. Iron heated red-hot by it, in a forge, was rendered more malleable.

In charring wood it has been conjectured, that a portion of it is sometimes converted into a pyrophorus, and that the explosions that happen in powder-mills are sometimes owing to this.

Bartholdi supposes, that such explosions are owing to the formation of phosphoretted hydrogen gas, while others attribute them to the absorption of oxygen, by the hydrogen contained in the coal, and the consequent evolution of free caloric. Percussion, which necessarily takes place in mixing the materials of gunpowder by stampers, no doubt accelerates the combustion. The addition of water, and having the charcoal previously pulverized, will prevent such accidents. (See Gunpowder.)

Coal prepared in the manner above stated, is liable to many foreign admixtures, nor can the process be so well regulated as to produce coal of a uniform quality throughout. The present improved process has many advantages, as experience has proved. It consists in charring the wood in confined vessels, made of iron. These are usually cylindrical, furnished with an iron cover, and placed in furnaces. The pyroacetic, formerly called the pyroligneous, acid, which is formed in the destructive distillation of wood, is caught for use. This acid is useful to the calico printer, dyer, &c. in making their iron liquor, and when purified, is employed in Europe in the place of vinegar, as it is more pungent, and highly concentrated.

When pine and various kinds of wood, which yield turpentine, are carbonized, we obtain tar during the process.

Chaptal informs us, that tar is obtained from the wood of the trunk, branches, and roots of the pine, which are heaped together, covered with turf, and set on fire to produce a close combustion, in the same manner as for making charcoal. The oily parts which are disengaged, trickle down, and are received in a gutter, which serves to convey them to a tub. The most fluid part is sold under the name of huile de cade; and the thicker part is the tar used for paying or painting the parts of shipping and other vessels.

According to the wood submitted to the process of charring, the products are, more or less, various; but in all cases it is only the solid part, or ligneous fibre, that furnishes the coal. By the ordinary process we obtain sundry volatile[92] products, among which are pyroacetic acid and carburetted hydrogen gas.

When wood is carbonized in the usual manner, it yields from 16 to 17 parts of charcoal in the hundred; but when the operation is conducted in close vessels, the product is 28 per cent. a saving of eleven or twelve per cent. By this difference in the quantity, it appears that eleven or twelve per cent. is burnt in the common process.

M. Mollerat was the first who tried the experiment with iron cylinders.

M. Vauquelin (Annales de Chimie, tome lxvi, p. 174) has given some observations on the carbonization of wood in close vessels, predicated on a Memoir of M. Mollerat; both of which are interesting. The apparatus used by M. Mollerat is described by Thenard, (Traité de Chimie, iii, p. 373,) to be composed of two parts, viz: a furnace with a moveable dome, and a cylindrical kettle, or vessel of iron sufficiently large to contain a cord of wood. It is furnished with a cover and pipe. The pyroacetic acid is collected. Smaller cylinders are preferred, because the wood is ignited more readily and the charcoal is more of a uniform quality.

From 100 parts of the following named woods, Messrs. Allen and Pepys (Phil. Trans. 1807) obtained the following proportional parts of charcoal:

See also the experiments of Mr. Mushet, in the third volume of Tilloch's Magazine.

It appears by the Annales de Chimie, vol. 66, and the Retrospect of Discoveries, vol. vi, p. 100, that three brothers have established at Pellerey, near Nuits, Cote d'Or, a manufactory on a large scale, for making charcoal in close vessels.

The quantity of charcoal they obtained is double that by the usual mode, while it requires only one-eighth part of wood to be consumed in the distillation; it is also better than the common, as a given quantity evaporates one-tenth more water than the other; hence iron masters may obtain twice as much iron from the use of a given quantity of wood; and in addition to this, there is also prepared a number of other articles, of each of which in order.

350 kilogrammes (700 lbs.) of wood, yield 25 or 30 of tar, which retains so much acid that it is soluble in water;[93] but when it is washed, and rendered thick by boiling, for some time, it offers more resistance to water. If mixed with one-fifth of rosin it is rendered equally fit for the use of ships, &c. as the common tar.

Four sorts of vinegar are prepared, all of which are perfectly limpid, which do not, like the common, contain any tartar, malic acid, resinous or extractive matter, nor indeed any mineral acid, lime, copper, or other substances. The simple vinegar marks—2° hydrometer for salts, at 12° centigrade thermo. it is stronger tasted than common vinegar, and produces a disagreeable irritation. The aromatic vinegar is prepared with tarragon, the smell is agreeable, but it has the same fault as the former. The vinous vinegar is formed by adding some alcohol to simple vinegar; it has a very sensible odour of acetic ether; the alcohol softens the flavour in some degree, but the vinegar is still very sharp. The acid, called strong vinegar, is in fact a very good acetic acid at 10¹/₂° hydr., it is very white, clear, and sharp, without the usual burnt flavour, and seems to form the basis of the preceding kinds. It can be sold for 8 or 9 francs (7s.) per lb. which is only half the price of that distilled from verdigris. Although not so agreeable to the taste as common vinegar, these new kinds are more elegant to the eye, and do not mother.

The editor of the Retrospect makes the following observations:

The proprietors of this manufactory seem to be perfectly aware of all the several productions which could be prepared from the refuse of their principal object; and we have no doubt but that the substances they procure in this manner will amply compensate them for the use of the capital that must be invested in building the furnaces.

The nature of the vessels in which they distil the wood is not mentioned, but they are probably cast iron retorts, or vessels of a similar nature, in which a distillation per latus takes place. The application, therefore, of lord Dundonald's furnaces for procuring coke to this purpose would be still more advantageous.

A cubic yard of wood yields 100 quarts of acid liquor, besides 50 or 60 lbs. of thick oil.

The method of making charcoal of a uniform quality, for which a Mr. Kurtz has taken out a patent, is the following:

A sheet-iron chest, which has a cover that fits it tight, and a pipe, or tube, that descends nearly to the bottom, and coming out from its side above, is fixed in brick work. In this[94] the billets of wood are put. Fire is then made underneath. It is obvious, that the wood is kept at one temperature from its being immersed in vapour, as the vapour cannot escape at the top, but must descend to the bottom, and then proceed up the pipe, by which it is conveyed away. The effect is, that the charring process goes on regularly, and the wood is charred equally. The carbonization is finished when the vapour ceases to appear, and nothing but carburetted hydrogen gas escapes. The charring of bones is performed in iron cylinders, furnished with tubes to receive, and convey away, the impure ammonia.

In the manufacture of powder, particular kinds of wood are selected for carbonization. These are generally, willow, hazle, maple, poplar, linden, buckthorn, or alder, or those which are tender and light, because, as they are less dense, and consequently more friable, they enflame and consume more rapidly: they are known in the arts by the name of white wood. When a less sudden effect is to be produced with the gunpowder, and the combustion prolonged, as in some sky-rockets, the charcoal of hard wood is to be preferred, such as the oak, beech, &c. When the wood is gathered, the bark is removed, and the wood exposed to the sun to dry: it is then cut into billets, and charred. The ashes, if any be formed, are to be carefully separated.

In considering the use of charcoal, therefore, for the preparation of gunpowder, we are to direct our inquiries to the choice of wood for carbonization, and the best process for carbonizing it. All light woods, we remarked, as the linden, willow, poplar, &c. furnish the lightest coal, and on that account are preferred. It is remarked, that tender wood, besides making a light, friable, and porous coal, is more combustible than ordinary hard, and more compact wood, and the coal that it furnishes leaves less residue after combustion.

Many experiments have been made with coal prepared from different kinds of wood, with a view of ascertaining the kind best adapted for the manufacture of gunpowder. M. Letort, at the powder mills of Essonne, in France, instituted a number of experiments of this kind. He made gunpowder with the coal of several kinds of wood, and compared its effects by a mortar eprouvette. The result was, that the powder made with the coal of poplar, was the strongest; and the other powder, made with the coal of the linden, willow, &c. was of the same quality throughout. As to the second inquiry, it is hardly necessary to repeat, that for the complete and thorough carbonization of the wood, to produce at[95] the same time coal of a uniform quality, the process of charring in iron cylinders or close vessels, is to be preferred. The point to be attended to is, to bring the wood to a complete state of ignition, and consequently to disengage all the volatile or fluid parts. When the gas (carburetted hydrogen) ceases to appear, it is a criterion that the operation is finished. This gas, it is to be recollected, will come over even after the whole of the wood is completely ignited. The first volatile product is the pyroacetic acid. Some saturate the acid liquor with chalk, and decompose the acetate of lime with sulphate of soda, and separate the acetic acid from the acetate of soda by distillation with sulphuric acid. The acetic acid is then tolerably pure, and may be diluted for use.

It is observed, however, that when charcoal, prepared in iron cylinders, is designed for gunpowder, the last portion of vinegar and tar must be allowed to escape, and the reabsorption of the crude vapours prevented, by cutting off the communication between the interior of the cylinders and the apparatus for condensing the pyroacetic acid, whenever the fire is withdrawn from the furnace. If this precaution be not taken, the gunpowder made with the charcoal would be of inferior quality.

On a large scale, when the object is also to prepare the vinegar of wood, a series of cast-iron cylinders, about four feet diameter, and six feet long, are built horizontally, in brick-work, so that the flame of one furnace may play round about two cylinders. Both ends project a little from the brick-work. One of them has a disc of cast iron well fitted and firmly bolted to it, from the centre of which disc an iron tube about six inches diameter proceeds, and enters at a right angle, the main tube of the refrigeration. The diameter of this tube may be from 9 to 14 inches, according to the number of cylinders. The other end of the cylinder is called the mouth of the retort. This is closed by a disc of iron, smeared round the edge, with clay lute, and secured in its place by wedges. The charge of wood for such a cylinder is about 8 cwt. The hard woods, oak, ash, birch, and beech, are alone used. Fir does not answer. The heat is kept up during the day-time, and the furnace is allowed to cool during the night. Next morning the door is opened, the coal removed, and a new charge of wood is introduced. The average product of crude vinegar is 35 gallons. Its total weight is about 300 lbs. But the residuary charcoal, according to Ure, (Chemical Dictionary), from whom we have taken this account, is found to weigh no more than one-fifth of the wood[96] employed. The crude pyroacetic acid is rectified by a second distillation, in a copper still, in the body of which about 20 gallons of viscid tarry matter are left for every 100. Its acid powers are now superior to the best household vinegar in the proportion of 3 to 2. Ure observes, that by distillation, saturation with quicklime, evaporation of the liquid acetate to dryness, and gentle torrefaction, the empyreumatic matter is so completely dissipated, that on decomposing the calcareous salt by sulphuric acid, a pure, perfectly colourless, and grateful vinegar rises in distillation. Pyroacetic acid is said to be a powerful antiseptic. M. Monge, Dr. Jorg, and more lately, Mr. Ramsay, of Glasgow, have made experiments with it. Fish dipped in it have been preserved for many days, and meat treated in the same manner, has also been preserved from putrefaction.

With respect to the pulverization of charcoal, the operation is so exceedingly simple, that we deem it unnecessary to notice it. It is obvious, that mortars, mills, &c. may be used, with fine or coarse sieves. For fire-works, charcoal is frequently pulverized in a leather sack, in the same manner as grained powder is reduced to meal-powder. It may be made either coarse or fine, to answer different purposes, by employing sieves of different kinds. Charcoal may be separated from nitre and sulphur, in gunpowder, by a simple process, which may be seen by referring to the section on gunpowder.

The quantity of carbon in coal, is directly proportionate to the quantity required for the decomposition of nitrate of potassa, a fact necessary to be considered in the theory of the action of charcoal in gunpowder. Thus, Mr. Kirwan found that, 12.709 of carbon are necessary to decompose 100 of nitrate of potassa. It will be easy to deduce the quantity of carbon, in a given weight of coal, from the quantity of nitrate of potassa it is capable of decomposing. The experiment is made very readily by fusing in a crucible, five hundred or more grains of nitre, and when red-hot projecting by degrees the powdered coal on the nitre. When the detonation produced by one projection of coal has ceased, add a new portion till it produces no farther effect.

Charcoal may be made intensely black, resembling ivory black, according to M. Denys-de-Montfort, (Bibliothèque Physico-Economique, for March 1815,) by pulverizing it very fine, mixing it with wine lees, and drying the mixture, and then subjecting it to a strong heat in a covered crucible, or other vessel.

[97]

Sec. VII. Of Gunpowder.

Having remarked, that the quality of gunpowder depends upon the purity of the materials, of which it is formed, and that they should be prepared in a state of purity; the subject that will now particularly claim our attention, is the proportions of the ingredients, their mixture, and the final preparation of gunpowder for use. To this, we purpose to add, the theory of its explosive effects, the different modes of proving it, and the experiments necessary to determine the quality of its respective ingredients, on all which we will be as brief as the importance of the subjects will admit. Previously, however, it may be interesting to notice the history of gunpowder, the invention of which has so completely changed the art of war.

The history of gunpowder has been fully treated by many writers of eminence; but by none more largely, and, at the same time, more satisfactorily than by the French. Beckman, in his History of Inventions, is full on this subject. Our purpose is not to go into details, as it would enlarge our volume, to the exclusion, perhaps, of other and more important matter. We shall, therefore, confine ourselves to a few facts and observations.

Notwithstanding much has been written on the subject, the original invention of gunpowder seems to be in obscurity. By whom, and at what time it was invented, is a question not fully settled. It is said to have been known in the east from time immemorial, and whatever claim Roger Bacon, who died in 1292, may have had to the discovery, or that he knew the properties of gunpowder, it is certain, that the use of fire-arms was then unknown in Europe.

Professor Beckman, who examined all the authors extant on the origin of gunpowder, is of opinion, that it was invented in India, and brought by the Saracens from Africa to the Europeans, who improved the preparation of it, and employed it in war, as well as for small arms and cannon.

M. Langles, who read a memoir on this subject to the National Institute, in 1798, observes, that the Arabians obtained a knowledge of gunpowder from the Indians, who had been acquainted with it from the earliest periods. The use of it was forbidden in their sacred books, the veidam or vede. It was employed in 690 at the battle near Mecca. As nitre was employed in all probability in the[98] Greek fire, invented about the year 678, it is supposed, that that composition gave rise to the invention of gunpowder.

Various prescriptions, or formulæ, have been given for the preparation of this fire. The oldest is by princess Anna Commena, in which, however, there is only resin, sulphur, and oil. Beckman observes, that the first certain mention of saltpetre will be found in the oldest account of the preparation of gunpowder, which, in his opinion, became known in the thirteenth century, about the same time that the use of the Greek fire, of which there were many kinds, began to be lost. The oldest information on this subject is to be found in the works of Albertus Magnus, and the writings of Roger Bacon. The true recipe for making the Greek fire, and the oldest for gunpowder, were found in a manuscript, preserved in the electoral library at Munich. Various copies of this manuscript were made. Bacon employed this writing, which was mentioned by Jebb, in the preface to his edition, from a copy preserved in the library of Dr. Mead. Whether the writer was Marcus Græcus, is of no moment; for Cardan observes, that the fire that can be kindled by water, or rather not extinguished by water, was prepared by Marcus Gracchus.

The former Marcus, mentions two kinds of fire-works; and the composition, which he prescribes for both, is two pounds of charcoal, one pound of sulphur, and six pounds of saltpetre, well powdered and mixed together in a stone mortar.

Friar Bacon, who lived three centuries after Græcus, was in possession of the recipe. It was concealed, however, from the people, veiled in mystery. In his treatise De Secretis Operibus Artis et Naturæ, &c. the secret of the composition is thus expressed: "sed tamen salispetræ, LURU MOPE CAN URBE et sulphuris; et sic facies tonitrum et corruscationem, si scias artificium." Luru mope can urbe, is the anagram for carbonum pulvere. Bacon supposes, that it was with a similar composition that Gideon defeated the Midianites, with only three hundred men. Besides the use of gunpowder in the 9th century, in the war between the Tunisians and the Moors, in which the former are said to have employed "certain tubes or barrels, wherewith they threw thunderbolts of fire," the Venetians employed it against the Genoese, and it was reprobated as a manifest contravention of fair warfare.

Peter Mexia, in his "Various Readings," relates, that the Moors, being besieged, in 1349, by Alphonso the eleventh, king of Castille, discharged a kind of iron mortars upon them,[99] which made a noise like thunder. This, with the sea-combat between the Tunisians and the Moors, stated on the authority of don Pedro, bishop of Leon, places the invention much earlier than by some writers.

Polydore Virgil ascribes the invention of gunpowder to a chemist, who, having put some of his composition in a mortar, and covered it with a stone, was blown up, in consequence of its accidentally taking fire. The person here alluded to, according to Thevet, was a monk of Friburg, named Constantine Anelzen. Others, as Belleforet, with more probability, hold it to be Bartholodus Schwartz, or the black, who discovered it, as some say, about the year 1320. Du Cange, however, remarks, that there is no mention made of gunpowder in the registers of the chamber of accounts in France, as early as the year 1338. Roger Bacon knew of gunpowder, near one hundred years before Schwartz was born. (See the invention of cannon, in military fire-works, fourth part.)

It is certain, that Albert de Bollstædt indicated the constituent parts of gunpowder, when he says, in his Mirabilis Mundi, "Ignis volans, accipe libram unam, sulphuris, libras duas, carbonas salicis, libras sex, salis petrosi, quæ tria subtilissime terantur in lapide marmorea; postea aliquid posterius ad libitum in tunica de papyro volante, vel tonitrum faciente ponatur.

"Tunica ad volandum debet esse longa, gracilis, pulvere illo optime plena, ad faciendum vero tonitrum brevis, grossa et semiplena."

Gunpowder was of a much weaker composition than that now in use, or that described by Marcus Græcus. Tartalgia, (Ques. and Inv. lib. 3, ques. 5), observes, that, of twenty-three different compositions, used at different times, the first, which was the oldest, contained equal parts of the three ingredients. When guns of modern construction came into use, gunpowder of the present strength was introduced.

The strength of powder depends upon the proportions of the ingredients, they being pure; and Mr. Napier observes, (Trans. Royal Irish Academy, ii.) that the greatest strength is produced, when the proportions are, nitre, three pounds, charcoal, nine ounces, and sulphur, three ounces. The cannon powder was in meal, and the musket powder in grain.

In the time of Tartalgia, the cannon powder was made of four parts of nitre, one of sulphur, and one of charcoal; and the musket powder of forty-eight parts of nitre, seven parts[100] of sulphur, and eight parts of charcoal; or of eighteen parts of nitre, two parts of sulphur, and three parts of charcoal.

The intimate mixture, therefore, and the determinate proportions of saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur, form gunpowder; the different qualities of which, depend, as well upon the proportions which are used, as on the purity of the materials, and the accuracy with which they are mixed.

Gunpowder is reckoned to explode at about 600° Fahr; but, if heated to a degree just below that of faint redness, the sulphur will mostly burn off, leaving the nitre and charcoal unaltered.

The saltpetre should be perfectly refined, and entirely free from deliquescent salts; the sulphur as pure as possible, and, for that reason, a preference should be given, to that which is sublimed, or distilled; and the charcoal should be prepared in iron cylinders, as described under that head, from woods, which are light and tender, as the linden, willow, hazle, dogwood, etc.

There is a considerable difference in the proportions used by different nations; but, from the many accurate and conclusive experiments of the French chemists, their formula is certainly the most perfect. In English powder, three-quarters of the composition are nitre, and the other quarter is made up of equal parts of charcoal and sulphur; but sometimes, to seventy-five parts of nitre, fifteen of charcoal is used, adding ten of sulphur. Their government powder is the same for cannon, as for small-arms.

According to a number of experiments, made at Grenille, it was found, that the proportion of saltpetre in gunpowder, must be in a given ratio with the charcoal, so that the latter might effectually decompose it in the act of combustion; and hence the ratio is as 12 of the latter to 75 of the former, and these, with 12 of sulphur, are the proportions generally employed. Ruggeri (Pyrotechnie Militaire, p. 91,) gives, as the proportions, 12 parts of saltpetre of the third boiling, 2 parts of charcoal, and 1 part of sulphur. The proportions, used in Sweden, are 75 saltpetre, 9 sulphur, and 16 charcoal; in Poland, 80 saltpetre, 8 sulphur, and 12 charcoal; in Italy, 76 saltpetre, 12 sulphur, and 12 charcoal; in Russia, 70 saltpetre, 11 sulphur, and 18¹/₂ charcoal; in Denmark, 80 saltpetre, 10 sulphur, and 10 charcoal; in Holland, 76 saltpetre, 12 sulphur, and 12 charcoal; in Prussia and Austria, 78 saltpetre, 11 sulphur, and 11 charcoal; and in Spain, 77 saltpetre, 11¹/₂ sulphur, and 11¹/₂ charcoal.

According to Klaproth and Wolff, (Dictionnaire de Chimie,[101] translated into French by MM. Lagrange and Vogel), Berlin powder is composed of three-quarters nitre; one-eighth sulphur, and one-eighth charcoal; Chinese powder, of 16 parts nitre, 6 charcoal, and 4 sulphur; Swedish powder, of 75 parts nitre, 16 sulphur, and 9 charcoal; the powder of Lissa, of 80 nitre, 12 sulphur, and 8 charcoal; and English powder, on the authority of Beckman, as follows: Powder for war, 100 parts of nitre, 25 charcoal, and 25 sulphur; musket powder, 100 nitre, 18 sulphur, and 20 charcoal; pistol powder, 100 nitre, 23 sulphur, and 15 charcoal; strong cannon powder, 100 nitre, 20 sulphur, and 24 charcoal; strong musket powder, 100 nitre, 15 sulphur, and 18 charcoal; and strong pistol powder, 100 nitre, 10 sulphur, and 18 charcoal. German powder, for war, is composed, generally, of 0.70 saltpetre, 0.16 charcoal, and 0.14 sulphur. A small portion of gum is sometimes added, to make the grain firmer; but such additions retard the combustion, and the effect.

The addition of gum arabic, however small, must injure the quality of gunpowder, although it has the effect of making the grain firmer, and less liable to fall into meal powder. The grain is also made heavier, and less liable to absorb moisture. M. Proust, in his second memoir on gunpowder, mentions the use of icthyocolla, a fish glue, for the same purpose; and, nevertheless, speaks of some advantages that the gunpowder, prepared with it, possesses.

It is observed by Mr. Coleman, of the Royal Powder Mills of Waltham abbey, that it is not exactly ascertained, whether there is any one proportion, which ought always to be adhered to, and for every purpose. We have no hesitation in believing, for our own part, that the French formula is the most correct, from the numerous experiments made at the royal manufactory at Essone, near Paris.

A very considerable variation is found in the proportions of the ingredients of the powder of different nations and different manufactories. The powder made in England, is the same for cannon as for small arms, the difference being only in the size of the grains; but in France, it appears, that there were formerly six different sorts manufactured; namely, the strong and the weak cannon powder, the strong and the weak musquet powder, and the strong and the weak pistol powder. The following are the proportions in each, though the reason of this nicety of distinction is not very obvious. For the strong cannon powder, the nitre, sulphur, and charcoal were in the proportions of 100 of the first, 25[102] of the second, and 25 of the third: for the weak cannon powder, 100, 20, and 24: for the strong musket powder, 100, 18, and 20; for the weak, 100, 15, and 18: for the strong pistol powder, 100, 12, and 15; for the weak, 100, 10, and 18.

The Chinese powder appears, by the analysis of Mr. Napier, to be nearly in the proportions of 100 of nitre, 18 of charcoal, and 11 of sulphur. This powder, which was procured from Canton, was large-grained, not very strong, but hard, well coloured, and in very good preservation.

The following proportions are now used in France, for the manufacture of gunpowder for war, for hunting, and for mining.

After having made choice of the materials, the nitre being pulverized, is passed through a brass sieve; the sulphur is pulverized by means of a muller, or other contrivance, and also sifted in a bolter; the quantities are then weighed, as well as the charcoal.

The mixing of these substances is performed in a series of mortars, hollowed out of a strong piece of oak wood; and by the aid of pestles or stampers, which are set in motion by machinery and water power, the mixture is thoroughly made. The end of the stampers is usually covered with, and sometimes made of, brass, and the mortars are also, in some powder mills, lined with brass. The mill has generally two rows of mortars and stampers, of ten each. The nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, in proper proportions, are put into each mortar. The charcoal is first introduced into the mortar, being sometimes previously pulverized; then wetted with water, and the pounding is continued for thirty minutes. The nitre and the sulphur are then added, and the whole is stirred with the hand. More water is then added; it is again stirred, and the operation of pounding is continued. The object of adding the water is to prevent the so called volatilization of the ingredients, and to give the mixture the consistency of paste, and at the same time to prevent the explosion of the powder; a circumstance, which must be always guarded against.

After the operation is continued for half an hour, the pounders are stopt, and the powder is then re-exchanged by[103] means of copper or brass ladles; that is to say, the powder of the first mortar is removed, and put into a box, and the contents of the second mortar are put into the first, that of the third is put into the second, that of the fourth into the third, &c. in succession, and in the last, the contents of the first mortar.

We make, in this manner, twelve exchanges, allowing one hour between two, and adding water from time to time, to the mixture, and especially during the summer months. After this, the pounders are again set in motion, for the space of two hours, and the operation is finished. Fourteen hours are generally required to complete the mixture, which is then in the form of paste. It is then granulated. After being partially dried, the graining is performed by passing it through sieves, which are more generally formed of parchment. These sieves are made to work horizontally, and the powder is caught in vessels placed beneath. The size of the grain depends on the sieve; hence, fine grain, or coarse grain powder is thus obtained. In the sieve is usually placed a contrivance to break the masses, and to cause the powder to pass through in grains. After this, the powder is again passed through a second sieve, commonly called a grainer, the holes of which are of the same diameter as the powder we wish to obtain. It is then put into another sieve, which permits only the dust to pass, whilst the grain-powder remains. As the powder, however, contains some grains too large, as well as others too small, we may separate the former by a fourth sieve, of a suitable size. The dust and fine grain are carried to the mill, and worked over. The powder for war, and for mining, is dried immediately after the graining.

Formerly, the powder was dried in the open air, by spreading it on tables lined with cloth, or in oblong boxes; but serious inconveniences resulted from it, and, particularly, the powdermakers were obliged to watch the temperature, as well as the state of the atmosphere. When the latter was moist, the drying was suspended.

M. Champy, however, has obviated these inconveniences by a very advantageous process, which consists in raising the temperature of the air to 50 or 60 degrees, and causing it to pass from the chamber in which it is heated, through cloths, on which is spread a bed of powder, of a certain thickness. By this means, large quantities of powder may be dried, in all seasons of the year, in a short time, and at little expense. In whatever manner the drying is performed,[104] there is always more or less dust formed, which, to make the grain of one uniform appearance, must be separated by a hair sieve. This operation is called the dusting.

Whether we adopt the plan recommended by M. Champy, or heat the rooms for the drying of powder to a certain temperature, by means of steam pipes, a plan which presents every advantage, or use the old mode, the effect is the same.

The musket, or hunting powder, undergoes an operation more than the powder for war, namely, that of glazing, which is performed before it is dried. With the exception of this process, it is made in the same manner, using, however, a finer sieve in granulating it. The glazing has for its object the smoothing, or removing the asperities of the grain, and to prevent its falling into dust, and soiling the hands.

The powder intended for glazing is first exposed an hour to the sun on one cloth, in winter, and between two cloths in summer, in order to dry it more perfectly, which is very necessary before the operation of glazing. For this purpose, it is put into a vessel like a barrel, which is turned horizontally upon its axis, by machinery. This barrel is furnished with bars that go across, intended to augment the friction, or rubbing of the grain, and expedite the process. The barrels are made to turn slowly, to avoid breaking the grain, and at the expiration of eight or twelve hours, the glazing is finished, the powder having acquired a sufficient hardness and polish. After removing the powder, the dust is separated in the usual manner.

Gunpowder-mills are mills, in which powder is prepared, by pounding and beating together the ingredients of which it is composed. They are always worked by water-power, and as there are generally many of them belonging to the same manufactory, one dam of water will furnish a sufficient supply. In the construction of powder-mills, the frame of the house is made very stout, and the roof put on lightly, so that in case of explosion, it may be carried off easily, and thus give vent to the powder, without much injury to the works. The lights, to enable the work to be carried on at night, are placed on the outside of the building, beyond the reach of the powder, and by means of glass windows, the light passes into the mill. It is lamentable, indeed, that so many accidents occur in the operation of making powder. This may take place, as it has to our knowledge, by the friction of the pounders. Their weight, the rapid succession of the blows, and the dryness of the powder,[105] are the principal causes of such accidents, and sometimes by the inattention of the workmen, suffering nails, and the like, to get among the materials. I once witnessed the effect of an explosion of the kind, in the neighbourhood of Frankford, in the vicinity of Philadelphia, at the old and well-known powder mills, at that place. It was produced, in consequence of the friction, by the neglect of the men not adding water at a proper time, to keep the materials moist. The mill in which the explosion took place was not much injured; but the roof, together with the men, were sent a considerable distance. Some of the latter fell into the mill-race, and were much injured. The effect, however, did not stop here; for the fire communicated, strange as it may appear, to some of the other mills, although at some distance, and blew them up. Several explosions have happened at the same mills.

An experiment, made at the same works, by the then proprietor, the father of the late commodore Decatur, by putting the nitre, charcoal, and sulphur, into a barrel, with iron balls covered with lead, which was turned upon its axis, terminated in the same way. It exploded, but no other injury or accident was sustained. On examining the balls, we found, that the lead was entirely worn off, and the explosion must have been owing to the iron. This experiment was performed, in order to find if the mixture could be made in this manner, a plan which was afterwards adopted in France, with success, but brass balls were used. In a series of essays, which I wrote for, and published in, the Aurora, in 1808, on the "Application of Chemistry to the Arts and Manufactures," as manufactures are vitally important to the practical independence of this country, I mentioned the subject of gunpowder, and the different modes of preparing it, and among which, the various experiments on this subject.

The machinery, required in gunpowder mills, is exceedingly simple. The power of the water, which may be given by an overshot, or undershot wheel, is communicated to the parts of the mill, which perform the work. Thus it is, that pounders, like the snuff, or plaster-paris mill, are put in motion, by a horizontal shaft, furnished, at different distances, with pieces of wood, which, by the revolution of the shaft, and meeting with the projecting pieces from the pounders, raises them in succession. They fall, then, in the same order of succession, in the respective mortars.

The mortars of the powder-mill, are hollow pieces of wood, capable of holding twenty pounds of paste, composed of the substances before mentioned, which are incorporated by means[106] of the pestle. There are usually twenty-four mortars in each mill, where are made, each day, four hundred and eighty pounds of gunpowder; care being taken, to sprinkle the ingredients with water, from time to time, lest they should take fire. This precaution is absolutely necessary, and if attended to, would prevent many of the explosions, which, unhappily, take place, in the manufacture of powder. The friction must be great, and, therefore, the increase of temperature, occasioned in this manner, ought to be guarded against. This can only be done, by diminishing the time, or number of the blows, or by proportioning the weight of the pestle, and the frequent addition of water. The last is the most certain, and indeed, the water is in some respects, necessary to promote a more intimate mixture of the materials. The observations of M. David, on the use of water in the manufacture of powder, are certainly correct. The pestle is a piece of wood, ten feet high, and four and a half inches broad, armed at the bottom with a round piece of metal. It weighs about sixty pounds.

Having mentioned one cause of the explosion of powder-mills, that of friction produced by the pestle, we find that it has been accounted for on another principle. The Annales de Chimie, tome xxxv, mentions some instances of spontaneous combustion in powder mills. It is well known, that charcoal has the property of absorbing several gases, and the observations of Rouppe and Berthollet, on this subject, are conclusive. It is also known, that charcoal, which contains hydrogen, when exposed to atmospheric air, will absorb oxygen, and form water; and during this combination, heat must be generated, by the emission of caloric from the oxygen gas. It is said, then, that in cases of spontaneous combustion, when nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, are mixed together, (unless water be added to prevent it), this effect will ensue, and fire be produced. We know, however, that percussion is one source of heat; and in truth, if that opinion be well founded, percussion itself may facilitate the union of hydrogen, with the oxygen of the air, and necessarily operate as a secondary cause of such explosions.

Another opinion has been advanced by Bartholdi, to account for the spontaneous combustion in powder mills: namely, that charcoal sometimes contains phosphorus, combined with hydrogen, which, by the action of the pestle, is disengaged in the form of gas, and inflames, the moment it comes in contact with the air. Others again suppose, that it sometimes contains pyrophorus.

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Pulverizing the charcoal, in the first instance, by itself, and adding water, during its mixture, from time to time, a measure proposed in 1808, by M. David, and now generally adopted, will prevent such accidents; for it appears, they have not occurred in France, since the adoption of this plan. Some remarks on spontaneous combustion, may be seen in the article on artificial volcanoes.

M. Sage, (Journal de Physique, vol. lxv, p. 423, or Nicholson's Journal, vol. xxiii, p. 277), has written on the spontaneous ignition of charcoal, and adduced some facts on the subject; by which it appears, that M. de Caussigni was the first, who observed, that charcoal was capable of being set on fire, by the pressure of mill stones.

Mr. Robin, commissary of the powder mills of Essonne, has given an account, in the Annales de Chimie, of the spontaneous inflammation of charcoal, from the black berry bearing alder, that took place the 23d of May, 1801, in the box of the bolter, into which it had been sifted. This charcoal, made two days before, had been ground in the mill, without showing any signs of ignition. The coarse powder, that remained in the bolter, experienced no alteration. The light undulating flame, unextinguishable by water, that appeared on the surface of the sifted charcoal, was of the nature of inflammable gas, which is equally unextinguishable.[17]

The moisture of the atmosphere, of which fresh made charcoal is very greedy, appears to have concurred in the development of the inflammable gas, and the combustion of the charcoal.

It has been observed, that charcoal powdered and laid in large heaps, heats strongly.

Alder charcoal has been seen to take fire in the warehouses, in which it has been stored.

About thirty years ago, M. Sage saw the roof of one of the low wings of the mint set on fire by the spontaneous combustion of a large quantity of charcoal, that had been laid in the garrets.

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Mr. Malet, commissary of gunpowder at Pontailler, near Dijon, has seen charcoal take fire under the pestle. He also found, that when pieces of saltpetre and brimstone were put into the charcoal mortar, the explosion took place between the fifth and sixth strokes of the pestle. The weight of the pestles is eighty pounds each, half of this belonging to the box of rounded bell metal, in which they terminate. The pestles are raised only one foot, and make forty-five strokes in a minute.

"In consequence of the precaution now taken," M. Sage observes, "to pound the charcoal, brimstone, and saltpetre separately, no explosions take place; and time is gained in the fabrication, since the paste is made in eight hours, that formerly required four and-twenty.

"Every wooden mortar contains twenty pounds of the mixture, to which two pounds of water are added gradually. The paste is first corned: it is then glazed, that is, the corns are rounded, by subjecting them to the rotary motion of a barrel, through which an axis passes: and lastly, it is dried in the sun, or in a kind of stove.

"Experience has shown, that brimstone is not essential to the preparation of gunpowder; but that which is made without it falls to powder in the air, and will not bear carriage. There is reason to believe, that the brimstone forms a coat on the surface of the powder, and prevents the charcoal from attracting the moisture of the air.

"The goodness of the powder depends on the excellence of the charcoal; and there is but one mode of obtaining this in perfection, which is distillation in close vessels, as practised by the English.

"The charcoal of our powder manufactories is at present prepared in pots, where the wood receives the immediate action of the air, which occasions the charcoal to undergo a particular alteration."

In 1724, (Coll. Academ. t. v, p. 413,) M. de Moraler proposed a new mode of mixing the materials for gunpowder. In 1759, M. Musy proposed another method to prevent explosions; and in 1783, the baron de Gumprecht constructed a very ingenious powder mill, a model of which he presented to the king of Poland, whose approbation it received.

There is an account in detail, of the results of the experiments made by MM. Regnier and Pajot Laforet, with different fulminating powders, in the Archives des Découvertes, iii, p. 337. These experiments, although interesting in a philosophical view, cannot be of service in the present[109] case. They were made with gunpowder, fulminating silver, fulminating silver and mercury combined, fulminating mercury alone, &c. See also the Bulletin de la Société d'Encouragement, cahir 65.

The observations of M. Proust (Journal de Physique for May, 1815) on the mixing of powder, and the consequences that result by following the old process, may be consulted.

The process of manufacturing gunpowder, which we have described, is followed in all, or the greater part of the factories of France. It is, however, tedious, and not exempt from danger. The same process, with some modifications or improvements, is adopted in this country; but of all our gunpowder manufactories, that of the messrs. Dupont of Brandywine, Delaware, has heretofore produced the best powder. Powder, however, equally powerful, has been made in other factories.

The improved process of M. Champy, which, in many respects, is superior to the foregoing, is the following:

1. The nitre, sulphur, and charcoal are first reduced, separately, to very fine powder. This operation is performed in barrels, which are made to turn upon their axis, similar to the barrel-churn, and the substances are introduced gradually. Balls, made of an alloy of copper and tin, are then put in, which by their action reduce the substances to powder.

2. The second operation has for its object, the intimate mixture of the ingredients. The quantities to be mixed are weighed, and put into a drum with a quantity of shot, which is made to revolve during an hour and a quarter. In this manner, three hundred pounds of the mixture are at once operated upon.

3. The mixture is then moistened with water. About fourteen per cent. is added. It is then passed through a sieve made with round holes, and then put into a drum, and submitted for a half hour, to a rotary motion. A number of small round grains are thereby formed, which are separated from the mass by means of a sieve, the holes of which are very small.

4. When a sufficient quantity of these grains are procured, they are put into another drum, of a suitable size, with one and a half times their weight of the original mixture. The drum being put in motion, some water is added, which serves to make them increase in size, by constant rubbing: at the end of a certain time, the whole becomes granulated,[110] or perfectly round. The density of the grains depends on the mixture, and the time they were kept in motion.

5. The powder being thus grained, is passed through sieves, whose holes are of different diameters; and hence it is divided into three kinds: viz. cannon powder, musket powder, and fine grained powder.

6. Finally, the powder is dried, and preserved in the usual manner. Its strength is equal to that made by the old process, and is perfectly round.

It may be proper to observe, that this process presents many important and decided advantages. Although, in our description, we have not gone into details, yet the whole operation will be seen at one view. It was practised in France, by its inventor, M. Champy, and, besides being introduced into the United States, it has also been adopted in Prussia.

M. Proust endeavoured to show, that charcoal made of shoots or branches, makes the best powder, and will mix with more facility with the nitre and sulphur; and in employing the ordinary charcoal, two hours beating is necessary to obtain a perfect mixture. The pestles, as Chaptal observes, usually make fifty-five strokes in a minute. Their weight is various; he gives them at eighty pounds.

M. Carney discovered a new process for the fabrication of powder, and although Chaptal himself made some advantageous changes in the process, yet the merit of the discovery he gives entirely to Carney. The process of M. Champy, is in some particulars the same. It will be sufficient, however, to observe, that it is reduced to three heads: viz.

1. The pulverization, and sifting of the materials;

2. Mixing the materials intimately in vessels similar to casks; and,

3. Giving the mixture the necessary consistence, and the final granulation.

For some details of the process, the reader may consult Chaptal's Chimie Appliqué aux Arts, tome iv, p. 145.

Chaptal is of opinion, that Carney's mode of fabricating powder, presents many advantages, among which he considers the facility of its formation, economy in the expense, and the superiority of the powder. In a memoir on the subject, and the formation of powder at Grenelle, Chaptal has described the process very minutely.

Bottée and Riffault reduce the manufacture of gunpowder in France to the following heads:

1. The mixture of the ingredients. This relates to the manner of uniting the nitre, charcoal, and sulphur, the quan[111]tity of the composition put into each mortar, and observations respecting the manipulation.

The time required for reducing gunpowder to its proper consistency, and for effecting the mixture is termed by the French, Battage. They are usually twenty-four hours, (or eight according to the new mode,) in pounding the materials to make good gunpowder. Supposing the mortar to contain sixteen pounds of composition, it would require the application of the pestle 3500 times each hour.

The order in which they are beaten, and mixed, is as before given, and also the rechanging, or transferring the materials from one mortar to another.

2. Granulation, (Grenage Fr.) This operation consists, as before observed, in passing the mixture through different sized sieves, employing also parchment sieves, and afterwards separating the dust by a fine sieve. The size of the grain depends altogether on the sieve. Hence we have cannon-powder, gunning or musket-powder, pistol-powder, and mining-powder. Superfine powder is the very small grained.

3. Glazing. (Lissage Fr.) This operation takes off the asperities of the grain, renders it hard and less liable to soil the hands, and gives it a kind of lustre. It is only used for fine powder, such as the pistol, and hunting-powder. Cannon powder is never glazed. It is performed in a barrel-shaped vessel, which is made to revolve on its axis, like the ordinary barrel-churn. The quantity of powder glazed in one of these barrels at a time, in France, is 150 kilogrammes.

By the rotary motion, the grains of powder rub against each other, by which each grain becomes smooth, and receives a polish. According to the motion of the barrel, so is the glazing more perfect. This, however, is regular. After the operation, which continues several hours, the dust is separated from the grain by a sieve. The state of the atmosphere influences the process. If dry, the grain receives a better polish; if wet or damp, the operation is retarded, and the gloss imperfect. It has been customary to introduce a very small portion of finely pulverized plumbago, (carburet of iron), in order to give the grain a better polish. But such additions, however small, are obviously injurious to the powder. It is said that it prevents the absorption of moisture. Powder, which has been glazed with black lead, (plumbago), may be known by its peculiar shining lustre, and also by experiment. M. Cagniard Latour made some experiments with glazed powder, which may be seen in the work of Bottée and Riffault, p. 233.

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4. Drying. (Séchage. Fr.) The drying of powder is performed in two ways, viz. by exposure to the sun, and by exposure to heat in close rooms. The English mode, that of drying by steam pipes, MM. Bottée and Riffault are of opinion, presents many advantages, and particularly that the powder may be dried in all weathers, and with perfect safety.

The mode of drying gunpowder by the vapour of water, (confining it, however, in iron pipes or vessels,) was suggested in 1781, and 1787. See Mémoires de l'Académie des Sciences de Suede, 1781, the Journal des Savants, 1787, and the Transactions of the Society of Arts, vol. xxiv. Mr. Snodgrass, in the last work, gave an account of a method of communicating heat by steam, by using pipes of cast iron, for which the society of arts voted him forty guineas.[18] Chaptal (Elements de Chimie) has some judicious remarks on the exsiccation of powder.

The experiment made at Essonne near Paris, by M. Champy, in 1808, on a contrivance for the drying of powder, was satisfactory. This experiment may be seen in page 242 of Bottée and Riffault.

5. Dusting, (Epoussetage.) This operation is confined merely to the sifting. It is nothing more than the separation of the dust from the grain, which we have before noticed. The dust is put in the mortars, and worked over.

6. Barrelling &c. After the powder has gone through the several operations described, it is then put into barrels, and taken to the magazine.

After speaking of gunpowder under these heads, they describe the manner of treating the green, (verd) and dry meal powder; the police of powder establishments, for order and economy; the workmen necessary in a powder manufactory;[19] the process of making powder in the revolution; [113]and for the manufacture of imperial powder (which contains 0.78 saltpetre 0.10 sulphur, and 0.12 charcoal); the process of Berne, where the powder is made of 0.76 saltpetre, 0.14 charcoal, and 0.10 sulphur; the process of Mr. Champy, noticed in this article; observations respecting different processes; on powder magazines; gunpowder made of other saline substances besides nitre; different modes of proving powder, examination of powder; description of workshops, mechanics, and utensils, &c. &c. with a variety of engravings. We have merely to remark, that this work of Bottée and Riffault (a large quarto volume, of 340 pages, besides the plates, which make a distinct volume) ought to be in the possession of every gunpowder manufacturer, as it contains all the information known on that subject. Of this fact there can be no difference of opinion, that in consequence of the great attention paid to the subject of gunpowder in France, not only by the government, but by scientific associations and individuals, their knowledge generally must be more minute and accurate, and their works, as authentic records of facts, more to be depended on.

Besides many interesting works, and memoirs in French,[20] there have appeared some valuable dissertations in the English language. Mr. Coleman, in his paper in the Phil. Mag. ix, p. 355, may be considered the first, who, as superintendant of one of the Royal powder mills, was enabled to present a body of facts on this subject.

As the mode of manufacturing gunpowder at the Royal Powder Mills of Waltham Abbey, in England, may be interesting and useful, in connection with the different processes already given; we will introduce in this place the account of Mr. Coleman, having extracted it from the Artist's Manual, &c. of the author, and having taken it from the original memoir of that gentleman.

The ingredients of gunpowder are taken in the following proportion, namely, 75 of saltpetre, 15 of charcoal, and 10 of sulphur. The saltpetre used is almost entirely that which is imported from the Indies, which comes over in the rough state mixed with earthy and other salts, and is refined by solution, evaporation, and crystallization. After this it is fused in a moderate heat, so as to expel all the pure water,[114] but none of the acid, and is then fit for use. The great use of refining the nitre is to get rid of the deliquescent salts, which by rendering the powder made of it liable to become damp by keeping, would most materially impair its goodness. The sulphur used is imported from Italy and Sicily, where it is collected in its native state in abundance. It is refined by melting and skimming, and when very impure, by sublimation. It should seem that the English sulphur, extracted in abundance from some of the copper and other mines, is too impure to be economically used for gunpowder, requiring expensive processes of refining.

The charcoal formerly used in this manufacture was prepared in the usual way of charring wood, piles being formed of it and covered with sods or fern, and suffered to burn with a slow smothering flame. This method however cannot with any certainty be depended on to produce charcoal of a uniformly good quality, and therefore a most essential improvement has been adopted in this country, to which the present superior excellence of American powder may be in a good measure attributed, which is, that of enclosing the wood, cut into billets about nine inches long, in iron cylinders placed horizontally, and burning them gradually to a red heat, continuing the fire till every thing volatile is driven off, and the wood is completely charred. But as the pyroligneous acid, the volatile product of the wood heated per se, is of use in manufacture, it is collected by pipes passing out of the iron cylinder, and dipping into casks where the acid liquor condenses. This acid is used in some parts of calico-printing, chiefly as the basis of some of the iron liquors and mordants for dark-coloured patterns. The wood before charring is barked. It is generally either alder or willow, or dog-wood, but there does not appear to be any certain ground for preferring one wood to another provided it be fully charred.

The above three ingredients being prepared, they are first separately ground to fine powder, then mixed in the proper proportions, after which the mixture is fit for the important operation of thoroughly incorporating the component parts in the mill. A powder mill is a slight wooden building, with a boarded roof, so that in the event of any moderate explosion, the roof will fly off without difficulty, and the sudden expansion will thus be made in the least mischievous direction. Stamping mills were formerly used here, which consisted simply of a large wooden mortar, in which a very ponderous wooden pestle was made to work[115], by the power of men, or horses, or water, as convenience directed. These performed the business with very great accuracy, but the danger from over-heating was found to be so great, and the accidents attributable to this cause were so numerous, that stamping mills have been mostly disused in large manufactures, and the business is now generally performed by two stones placed vertically, and running on a bed-stone or trough.

The mixed ingredients are put on this bed-stone in quantities not exceeding 40 or 50 pounds at a time, and moistened with just so much water, as will bring the mass in the grinding to a consistence considerably stiffer than paste, in which it is found by experience that the incorporation of the ingredients goes on with the most ease and accuracy. These mills are worked either by water or horses.

The composition is usually worked for about seven or eight hours before the mixture is thought to be sufficiently intimate, and even this time is often found, by the inferior quality of the powder, to be too little. The fine powder manufactured at Battle in Sussex, is still however made in large mortars or stamping mills, in the old way, with heavy lignum vitæ pestles. Only a very few pounds of the materials are worked at a time.

The composition is then taken from the mills and sent to the corning-house, to be corned or grained. This process is not essential to the manufacture of perfect gunpowder, but is adopted on account of the much greater convenience of using it in grains than in fine dust. Here the stiff paste is first pressed into hard lumps, which are put into circular sieves with parchment bottoms, perforated with holes of different sizes, and fixed in a frame connected with a horizontal wheel. Each of these sieves is also furnished with a runner or oblate spheroid of lignum vitæ, which being set in motion by the action of the wheel, squeezes the paste through the holes of the parchment bottom, forming grains of different sizes. The grains are then sorted and separated from the dust by sieves of progressive dimensions.

They are then glazed or hardened, and the rough edges taken off, by being put into casks, filling them somewhat more than half-full, which are fixed to the axis of a water-wheel, and in thus rapidly revolving, the grains are shaken against each other and rounded, at the same time receiving a slight gloss or glazing. Much dust is also separated by this process. The glazing is found to lessen the force of[116] the powder from a fifth to a fourth, but the powder keeps much better when glazed, and is less liable to grow damp.

The powder being thus corned, dusted and glazed, is sent to the stove-house and dried, a part of the process which requires the greatest precautions to avoid explosion, which in this state would be much more dangerous than before the intimate mixture of the ingredients.

The stove-house is a square apartment, three sides of which are furnished with shelves or cases, on proper supports, arranged round the room, and the fourth contains a large cast-iron vessel called a gloom, which projects into the room, and is strongly heated from the outside, so that it is impossible that any of the fuel should come in contact with the powder. For greater security against sparks by accidental friction, the glooms are covered with sheet copper, and are always cool when the powder is put in or taken out of the room. Here the grains are thoroughly dried, losing in the process all that remains of the water added to the mixture in the mill, to bring it to a working stiffness. This Mr. Coleman finds to be from three to five parts in 100 of the composition. The powder when dry is then complete.

The government powder for ordnance of all kinds as well as for small arms, is generally made at one time, and always of the same composition; the difference being only in the size of the grains as separated by the respective sieves.

A method of drying powder by means of steam-pipes running round and crossing the apartment has been tried with success: by it all possibility of an accident from over-heating is prevented. The temperature of the room when heated in the common way by a gloom-stove is always regulated by a thermometer hung in the door of the stoves.

The strength of the powder is sometimes injured by being dried too hastily and at too great a heat, for in this case some of the sulphur sublimes out (which it will do copiously at a less heat than will inflame the powder) and the intimate mixture of the ingredients is again destroyed. Besides if dried too hastily, the surface of the grain hardens leaving the inner part still damp.

Mr. Coleman deduces from experiment the following inferences, namely: that the ingredients of gunpowder only pulverized and mixed have but a very small explosive force: that gunpowder granulated after having been only a short time on the mill, has acquired only a very small portion of its strength, so that its perfection absolutely depends on very long-continued and accurate mixture and incorporation[117] of the ingredients: that the strength of gunpowder does not depend on granulation, the dust that separates during this process being as strong as the clean grains: that powder undried, is weaker in every step of the manufacture than when dried: and lastly, that charcoal made in iron cylinders in the way already mentioned, makes much stronger powder than common charcoal. This last circumstance is of so much consequence, and is so fully confirmed by experience, that the charges of powder now used for cannon of all kinds have been reduced one-third in quantity, when this kind of powder is employed.

In barrelling powder, particular care must be taken to avoid moisture, and this business is also generally reserved for dry weather.

When powder is only a little damp, it may be restored to its former goodness merely by stoving; but if it has been thoroughly wetted, the nitre (the only one of the ingredients soluble in water) separates more or less from the sulphur and charcoal, and by again crystallizing, cakes together the powder in whitish masses, which are a loose aggregate of grains covered on the surface with minute efflorescences of nitre. In this case the spoiled powder is put into warm water merely to extract the nitre, and the other two ingredients are separated by straining and thrown away.

The specific gravity of gunpowder is estimated by Count Rumford to be about 1.868.

The strength and goodness of powder is judged of in several ways; namely, by the colour and feel, by the flame when a small pinch is fired, and by measuring the actual projectile force by the eprouvette, and by the distance to which a given weight will project a ball of given dimensions under circumstances in all cases exactly similar.

When powder rubbed between the fingers easily breaks down into an impalpable dust, it is a mark of containing too much charcoal, and the same if it readily soils white paper when gently drawn over it. The colour should not be absolutely black, but is preferred to be more of a dark blue with a little cast of red. The trial by firing is thus managed; lay two or three small heaps of about a dram each on clean writing paper, about three or four inches asunder, and fire one of them by a red-hot iron wire: if the flame ascends quickly with a good report, sending up a ring of white smoke, leaving the paper free from white specks and not burnt into holes, and if no sparks fly off from it, setting fire to the contiguous heaps, the powder is judged to be very[118] good, but if otherwise, either the ingredients are badly mixed, or impure.

Gunpowder mixed with powdered glass, and struck with a hammer is said to explode.

An advertisement appeared in the public papers some time in 1813 or 14, signed T. Ewel, addressed to powder manufacturers, by which it appears, in the words of the advertisement, that "he obtained from the United States a patent right for three very simple and important improvements in the manufacture of gunpowder, which do most truly diminish more than one half the risk, the waste, and the expense of the manufacture. They consist in boiling the ingredients by steam, in incorporating them without the objection of barrels, the danger of pounders, or the tediousness of stones running on the edge: and in the granulation effected by a simple machine turning by hand or water, and graining more in a day than twenty hands, losing not a particle of dust, and making not half the quantity for re-manufacture. The advantages of this mode have been so great that he had to discharge half his workmen from his manufactory, as will be readily accounted for by those accustomed to the tediousness and loss from graining, particularly the press powder by the sifter and rollers, &c."

We have not seen the plan in operation, and, therefore, can say nothing respecting it; but it would appear, from the description, that the process was conducted altogether by steam. It is true, that the use of steam is no new application, nor was it then, as it had been used in Europe for heating of dye kettles, in soap boiling, distilling, for warming apartments, and many other purposes. The application to that particular use, that of the manufacture of gunpowder, may be original as far as we know, notwithstanding steam has been applied by means of pipes, &c. as is used at present in some manufactories, for the drying of gunpowder. Professor, now president Cooper, of Columbia College, S. C. (Emporium of Arts and Sciences vol. ii, p. 317) in making some observations respecting that publication, believes, that the application of steam to the manufacture of gunpowder to be practicable, and in reference to the advertisement, also a real improvement; and speaking of steam for that purpose adds, "whether it be adopted in England or not, or whether among the numerous patents granted for the application of steam to the arts and manufactures of that country, I know not."

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On a general principle of heating apartments by steam, we may remark, that one cubic foot of boiler will heat about two thousand feet of space, in a cotton mill, whose average heat is from 70° to 80° Fahr. One square foot of surface of steam pipe, is adequate to the warming of two hundred cubic feet of space. Cast iron pipes are preferable to all others for the diffusion of heat. For drying muslins and calicoes, large cylinders are employed, and the temperature of the apartment is from 100° to 130°. Dr. Black observes that steam is the most effectual carrier of heat that can be conceived, and will deposite it only on such bodies as are colder than boiling water.

Dr. Ure (Researches on Heat) has given a new table of the latent heat of vapours, by which it appears that the vapour of water, at its boiling point, contains 1000 degrees, while that of alcohol of the specific gravity, .825 contains 457°, and ether, whose boiling point is 112°, only 312.9. We see then not only by the recent experiments of Ure, but also those of Dr. Black, Lavoisier and Laplace, Count Rumford, Mr. Watt and some others, that water is the best carrier of heat, using the expression of Dr. Black, and hence is admirably calculated for the warming of apartments and other purposes.

Steam may be applied for the heating of water or other fluids, either for baths or manufactures, and consequently for the saltpetre and sulphur refineries, attached to a gunpowder establishment, either by plunging the steam pipe with an open end into the water cistern, if it be for the heating of water, or by diffusing it around the liquid in the interval between the wooden vessel and an interior metallic case. This last mode is applicable to all purposes.

A gallon of water in the form of steam will heat 6 gallons at 50° up to the boiling point, or 162 degrees; or one gallon will be adequate to heat 18 gallons of the latter up to 100 degrees, making an allowance for waste in the conducting pipe.

Mr. Woolf (Monthly Magazine vol. xxxii, p. 253) has taken out a patent for a steam apparatus for various purposes, among which that for the drying of gunpowder is specified. This patent is considered under three heads; viz. the construction of the boilers, which are cylindrical vessels properly connected together, and so disposed as to constitute a strong and fit receptacle for water, or any other fluid, intended to be converted into steam, and also to present an[120] extensive portion of convex surface to the current of flame, or heated air or vapour from a fire. Secondly, of other cylindrical receptacles placed above these cylinders, and properly connected with them, for the purpose of containing water and steam, and for its reception, transmission, &c. Thirdly, of a furnace so adapted to the cylindrical parts just mentioned, as to communicate heat with facility and economy. By means of this invention, he states, that any desired temperature, necessary for the drying of gunpowder, may be produced where the powder is to be dried, without the necessity of having fire in, or so near the place as to endanger its safety; for by employing steam only, conveyed through pipes, and properly applied and directed, without allowing any of it to escape into the room or apartment where the powder is, any competent workman can produce a heat equal to that found necessary for drying gunpowder, or much higher if required. The heat may be regulated, to effect the purpose, without producing the sublimation of the sulphur, which has sometimes taken place.

Among the numerous patents of the late D. Pettibone are some for ovens, both fixed and portable, for the drying of gunpowder. Speaking of the use of heated air (Description of the Improvements of the Rarefying air-stove, p. 19) he observes, that powder makers would derive a very great advantage by using rarefied air for drying their gunpowder.

Mr. Ingenhouz (Nouvelles experiences et observations sur divers objects de physique) attributed the effect of gunpowder to the simultaneous disengagement of dephlogisticated air from the nitre, and inflammable air from the charcoal at the moment of ignition. He followed the calculation of Bernouilli with respect to the quantity of gas generated, viz: that one cubic inch of gunpowder at the moment of inflammation, calculating at the same time its expansion, occupies not less than 2276 cubic inches.

That the effective force of gunpowder depends on the generation and expansion of sundry gaseous fluids, is evident, from the chemical action which takes place in the combustion. At a red heat gunpowder explodes. This ensues even in a vacuum; a fact at once conclusive, that, while it possesses the inflammable principle, it has also the supporter of combustion. It is to be observed that the particle of powder which is struck by the spark, is instantaneously heated to the temperature of ignition, and is thereby decom[121]posed; and the affinity existing between its oxygen or the oxygen of the nitric acid, and the charcoal and sulphur produces the principal part of the gases. The caloric thus evolved, inflames successively, though with rapidity, the remaining mass. The expansive force of powder, is therefore attributed to the sudden production of carbonic acid gas, sulphurous acid and nitrogen gas, with the water which is instantaneously converted into steam; all of which are greatly augmented by the quantity of caloric liberated.

The combustion, therefore, is owing to the action of the charcoal and sulphur on the nitre; and the decomposition is the effect of the union of the charcoal with a part of the oxygen of the nitric acid, with which it forms carbonic acid, and also with the sulphur producing sulphurous acid gas. It is asserted, that sulphuretted hydrogen gas is also produced; if so, there must be a sulphuret formed, which decomposes a part of the water. After combustion, what remains is carbonate of potassa, sulphate of potassa, and a small proportion of sulphuret of potassa and unconsumed charcoal. Good powder, however, should leave no very sensible residue when inflamed: this is one of the proofs recommended. Thenard observes, (Traité de Chimie, ii, p. 498,) that the products of the combustion of gunpowder are numerous; some gaseous, and some solid. The gaseous products are carbonic acid, deutoxide of azote (nitrous gas) and azotic gas, besides the vapour of water; and the solid products are sub-carbonate of potassa, sulphate of potassa, and sulphuret of potassa.

M. Proust considers, that nitrite of potassa, prussiate of potassa, charcoal, sulphuretted hydrogen gas, carburetted hydrogen gas, nitrous gas, and carbonic oxide gas may be generated or result, as the products of the combustion, when the materials have not been properly mixed. Our object in all cases should be to render the materials pure, and the proportions so accurate, as to produce the greatest possible effect, which, of course, must depend on the formation and the consequent expansion of the gases. The effect of fired gunpowder is owing in a great degree to the generation of carbonic acid gas; for while the charcoal acts primarily in the combustion, by taking a greater part of the oxygen from the nitric acid of the nitre, with which we have said it produces carbonic acid; the sulphur has a secondary influence, by forming sulphurous acid gas, although it renders the combustion more rapid, and in this respect enables the charcoal to act at once on the nitric acid of the saltpetre.

We learn then, that in gunpowder, the quantity of char[122]coal should be such as to effect the decomposition; and, that while the sulphur has a secondary effect, in the formation of sulphurous acid gas, it promotes, if so we may term it, the rapid combustion, and consequent action of the charcoal.

MM. Bottée and Riffault (Traité de l'art de Fabriqué la poudre à canon, p. 197,) after making some observations on the constitution of powder, and the action which takes place when it is burnt, with the aeriform products that result, give some remarks on the proportion of charcoal necessary to decompose a given quantity of nitric acid; and conclude generally, that in the production of carbonic acid gas, the principal gas which is formed, while the nitric acid is decomposed, and gives up its oxygen to the carbon, the azote is liberated in the state of gas, and at the same time caloric is evolved. They observe then, that the ancient formula for the manufacture of gunpowder, as used in France, consists of the following proportions, viz: 0.750 saltpetre, 0.125 charcoal, and 0.125 sulphur, which agrees with modern experiments, although chemistry at that period was in its infancy. M. Pelletier, a member of the National Institute, and M. Riffault made several experiments at Essonne, on different proportions of nitre, charcoal, and sulphur in the fabrication of powder. It is unnecessary to state the different proportions, made use of, or the experiments on the strength of the powder made with the eprouvette. They observe, however, that powder made in the following proportions, was more satisfactory, viz. 0.76 saltpetre, 0.15 charcoal, 0.09 sulphur, and 0.76 saltpetre, 0.14 charcoal, and 0.10 sulphur.

Before we give the gaseous products, according to these gentlemen, it will be necessary to observe, that the quantity of nitric acid in nitrate of potassa, is 48.62 in the hundred, and according to Gay-Lussac, nitric acid is composed in volume of 250 oxygen and 100 azote, or in weight of 69.488 oxygen, and 30.512 azote.

Using the French gramme in the present instance, it appears that 75 grammes of nitrate of potassa, the proportion of this salt which enters into 100 grammes of gunpowder for war, contains 36.47 grammes of nitric acid; and that this quantity of acid is formed of 25.34 grammes of oxygen, and 11.13 grammes of azote. That quantity of oxygen (25.34) is disengaged from its combination with azote in the nitric acid, at the instant of the inflammation of the powder by the charcoal, forming carbonic acid; the constituents of which, according to the proportions established by Gay-Lussac and others, must be in the ratio of 27.376 of carbon and[123] 72.624 of oxygen. If 25.34 grammes of oxygen exist in 75 grammes of nitrate of potassa, the proportion usually admitted, then it will require 9.55 grammes of carbon to saturate it, so as to produce carbonic acid. It is necessary to consider, that this is independent of any foreign earthy or saline matter or moisture which may exist.

With respect to the presence of hydrogen in charcoal, the observations of Dr. Priestley, Cruikshanks, Kirwan, Berthollet, Gay-Lussac, Thenard, Vauquelin, Lowitz and some others, are conclusive on that head. Lavoisier made the quantity of hydrogen in charcoal upon an average, to be 0.125 of its weight. See Memoirs de la Société d'Arcueil, tome ii, p. 343, and the Statique Chimique, tome ii, pages 44 and 45, and also charcoal in a preceding section.

It is said, that by employing more charcoal than is necessary to decompose the nitric acid of the nitre, the excess passes off, not as carbonic acid, but carbonic oxide, or gaseous oxide of carbon, which is necessarily inflamed, and finally forms carbonic acid, as one of the products with the carbonic acid originally formed. But the carbonic oxide, to be changed into carbonic acid, requires in fact the oxygen of the atmosphere.

If 34.89 grammes of carbonic acid result from the combustion of 9.55 grammes of carbon, it must unite with a quantity of oxygen, as before expressed, and according to the temperature, be more or less expanded. The 11.13 grammes of azote thus disengaged from its combination with oxygen, in the nitric acid, remains, of course, in the gaseous state, and is also expanded by caloric. The quantity of the latter is stated by Lavoisier, to be 430 degrees, using a scale of 80 parts; and according to more recent experiments, it is fixed at 600 degrees of the centigrade thermometer. The experiments of Gay-Lussac are more recent, in which he has given the dilatation of the gases, and the quantity of free caloric evolved, which corresponds with the last data. We have not room to insert his remarks.

The use of sulphur with the charcoal, in the fabrication of powder, Bottée and Riffault state to be, (page 204) that it inflames more rapidly than charcoal, and at a lower temperature, which accelerates the combustion of the charcoal, and consequently the detonation of the powder. The presence of the sulphur augments the volume of gas, by producing sulphurous acid gas. The proportion of sulphur in the powder for war, is, 0.125, for musket powder, 0.10, and for mining powder, 0.20, according to the same gentlemen.

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M. Fourcroy (Système des Connaissances Chimiques, tome iii, p. 122.) among other products of the combustion of powder, mentions ammonia. If ammoniacal gas be formed, the hydrogen must proceed from decomposed water, and the azote from the nitric acid. Prussine, cyanogen, or carburet of nitrogen, the radical of prussic acid, may also be generated by the union of carbon and nitrogen or azote, in the same manner. We know that cyanogen may exist in the form of gas; but as it is inflammable, burning with a bluish flame mixed with purple, we may infer, nevertheless, that, if generated, it must undergo decomposition by the process of combustion. Although I know of no experiments on this subject, either by Gay-Lussac, Vauquelin or Davy, all of whom have investigated the properties of this compound of carbon and azote, which Dr. Ure has called prussine; yet it would appear, that during its combustion, the carbon is changed into carbonic acid, and whether the azote be also combined with oxygen, or merely set at liberty, is altogether uncertain. Many difficulties present themselves to a complete and satisfactory set of experiments on the gaseous products of fired gunpowder.

With respect to the granulation of powder, we may observe, that although some writers consider that granulated powder is stronger than the fine powder, yet others are of opinion, that its strength is not increased by granulation. Grained powder is more fit for use; but the graining of it prevents the whole of the powder from taking fire instantaneously. Gunpowder, although prepared in the best manner, is not wholly consumed by inflammation. However remarkable it may appear, yet nevertheless it is true, that a considerable portion of gunpowder fired in a confined space is thrown out without being kindled. That gunpowder passes through a volume of fire without being consumed, may seem incredible, yet the fact may be proved by firing with a musket upon snow, or upon a paper screen.

M. Morveau communicated to the Institute some experiments, which may be seen in the Archives des Découvertes, i, p. 269, relative to the time necessary for the inflammation of a given mass of gunpowder, &c. He infers that large grain powder inflames more readily than the fine grain.

Since during the combustion of powder, gaseous bodies more or less considerable are generated, it follows that the full force of fired gunpowder must depend on the maximum of the quantity of those gases; and the powder is more strong as it is susceptible of forming more gas in a[125] given time. Besides the purity and the proper proportion of the materials, the gunpowder, to produce the greatest possible effect, should not only be intimately mixed, but dried perfectly and with care.

It is a fact which is well known, that a musket, fowling piece, &c. are very apt to burst, if the wadding is not rammed down close to the powder. Hence it is obvious, that in loading a screw barrel pistol, care should be taken that the cavity for the powder be entirely filled with it, so as to leave no space between the powder and the ball.

Experience has shown, that if a shell is only half or two-thirds filled with gunpowder, it breaks into a great number of pieces, and on the contrary, if completely filled, it separates only into two or three pieces, which are thrown to a very great distance.

It is also found that the same principle, of leaving a space for air, is applied with success in blasting rocks, and splitting trunks of trees. If the trunk of a tree is charged with gunpowder, and the wadding is rammed down very hard upon the powder, in that case (unless the quantity of powder is great,) the wadding is only driven out, and the tree remains entire; but if, instead of ramming the wad close to the powder, a certain space is left between them, the effects of the powder are then such as to tear the tree asunder.

Addison (Travels through Italy and Swisserland) speaking of the celebrated Grotto Del Cani, which contains carbonic acid gas, and on that account extinguishes flame, and is fatal to animal life, observes, that he laid a train of gunpowder in the channel of a reed, and placed it at the bottom of the grotto, and on inflaming it, that it burnt entirely away, although the carbonic acid gas in the same spot would immediately extinguish a lighted taper, snuff and all; for, he remarks, fire is as soon extinguished in it as in water. If gunpowder did not contain within itself that which was necessary to produce combustion, how are we to account for its combustion in an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas, or in vacuo?

Whether gunpowder be fired in a vacuum or in air, a permanently elastic fluid is generated, the elasticity or pressure of which is, cæteris paribus, directly as its density.

Gregory, (Treatise on Mechanics, &c. ii, p. 56) has given a summary of the results of the experiments of Mr. Robins, which we insert verbatim. "To determine the elasticity and quantity of this fluid (the elastic) produced from the explosion of a given quantity of gunpowder, Mr. Robins[126] premises, that the elasticity increases by heat, and diminishes by cold, in the same manner as that of the air; and that the density of this fluid, and consequently its weight, is the same with an equal bulk of air, having the same elasticity at the same temperature. From these principles, and from the experiments by which they are established (for a detail of which we must refer to the book itself,) he concludes that the fluid produced by the firing of gunpowder, is nearly ³/₁₀ths of the weight of the generating powder itself; and that the volume or bulk of this air or fluid, when expanded to the rarity of common atmospheric air, is about 244 times the bulk of the said generating powder. Count Salace in his Miscel. Phil. Math. Soc. Priv. Taurin, p. 125, makes the proportion as 222 to 1; which he says agrees with the computation of Messrs. Hawkesbe Amontons, and Belidor. Hence it would follow that any quantity of powder fired in any confined space, which it adequately fills, exerts at the instant of its explosion against the sides of the vessel containing it, and the bodies it impels before it, a force at least 244 times greater than the elasticity of common air, or, which is the same thing, than the pressure of the atmosphere; and this without considering the great addition arising from the violent degree of heat, with which it is endued at that time; the quantity of which augmentation is the next head of Robins's inquiry.

He determines that the elasticity of air is augmented in a proportion somewhat greater than that of 4 to 1, when heated to the extremest heat of red-hot iron; and supposing that the flame of fired gunpowder is not of a less degree of heat, increasing the former number a little more than four times, makes nearly 1000; which shows that the elasticity of flame, at the moment of explosion, is about 1000 times stronger than the elasticity of common air, or than the pressure of the atmosphere. But, from the height of the barometer, it is known that the pressure of the atmosphere upon every square inch is on a medium of 14³/₄ths, and therefore 1000 times this, or 14750 lbs. is the force of pressure of inflamed gunpowder, at the moment of explosion, upon a square inch, which is very nearly equivalent to six tons and a half. This great force, however, diminishes as the fluid dilates itself, and in that proportion; viz. in proportion to the space it occupies, it being only half the strength, when it occupies a double space, one-third the strength, when a triple space, and so on. Mr. Robins further supposed the degree of heat above mentioned to be a kind of medium heat; but that in the case of large quantities of powder the[127] heat will be higher, and in very small quantities lower; and that therefore in the former case the force will be somewhat more, and the latter somewhat less, than 1000 times the force of the atmosphere.

He further found, that the strength of powder is the same in all variations in the density of the atmosphere: but that the moisture of the air has a great effect upon it; for the same quantity which in a dry season would discharge a bullet with the velocity of 1700 feet in one second, will not in damp weather give it a velocity of more than 12 or 1300 feet in a second, or even less, if the powder be bad, or negligently kept. Robins's Tracts vol. i, p. 101, &c. Further, as there is a certain quantity of water, which, when mixed with powder, will prevent its firing at all, it cannot be doubted but every degree of moisture must abate the violence of the explosion; and hence the effects of damp powder are not difficult to account for.

The velocity of expansion of the flame of gunpowder, when fired in a piece of artillery, without either bullet or other body before it, is prodigiously great, viz. 7000 feet per second. But Mr. Bernoulli and Mr. Euler think it is still much greater.

Dr. Hutton, after applying some requisite corrections to Mr. Robins's numbers, and after remarking that the powder does not all inflame at once, as well as that about ⁷/₁₀ths of it consist of gross matter not convertible into an elastic fluid, gives

for the initial velocity of any ball of given weight and magnitude, and

for the value of the initial force n of the powder in atmospheric pressures: when a = length of the bore occupied by this charge, b = whole length of the bore, d = diameter of the ball, w = its weight, 2 p = weight of the powder, q = ^a/_d. In his experiments and results, he found n to vary between 1700 and 2300, and the velocity of the flame to vary between 3000 and 4732; specifying, however, the modification in his computations, which would give more than 7000 feet per second for that velocity. Taking 2200 for an average value of n, and substituting 47 for its square root in the above formula for v, it becomes

for the velocity of the ball, a[128] theorem which agrees remarkably well with the Doctor's numerous and valuable experiments. (Tracts, vol. iii, p. 290, 315.)

In a French work entitled, "Le Mouvement Igné considéré principalement dans la charge d'une pièce d'artillerie," published in 1809, there are advanced, among other notions which we apprehend few philosophers will be inclined to adopt, some which may demand and deserve a careful consideration. The author of this work observes, that if a fluid draws its force partly from a gaseous or aeriform matter, and partly from the action of caloric, which rarefies that aeriform matter; then its density in proportion to its dilatation, will follow the inverse ratios of the squares of the spaces described. He then investigates two classes of formulæ: the first appertains to fluids which possess simply the fluid or aeriform elasticity, which are free from all heat exceeding the temperature of the atmosphere. Whether there be one or many gaseous substances signifies not, provided their temperature agrees with that of the atmosphere; for when these dilate they conform to the inverse of the spaces described. The second relate to those which derive their elasticity as well from the aeriform fluids, as from the matter of heat which pervades them, and which are denominated fluids of mixed elasticity, to distinguish them from those of simple or purely aeriform elasticity. These fluids, in dilating, conform to the inverse ratio of the squares of the spaces described. Thus the celerity of action of mixed elastic fluids, is to that of simple elastic fluids as S² to S; whence it follows that mixed elastic fluids are more prompt and energetic in their action than others; and hence also is inferred why the fluid produced by the combustion of gunpowder, is more impetuous and more terrible in its operation than atmospheric air, however compressed it may be. The force exerted by the caloric to dissolve a quantity of powder, is regarded as equal to that possessed by the fluid which results from that dissolution, and is named the force of dissolution of powder by fire: and the surface of least resistance is that (as of the ball,) which yields to the action of the fluid. The gunpowder subjected to experiment by this author, was of seven different qualities, varying from 1000, the density of water, down to 946, the density of powder used by sportsmen. It was found by theory, and confirmed by experiment, that the real velocity with which the elastic fluid, considered under the volume of the powder, and penetrated by a degree of heat capable of quadrupling the volume, would expand, when it had only the resistance of the atmosphere to surmount, is 2546.49 feet, that is, about 2734.4 feet English.

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Comparing the several forces which were calculated for the same quantity of powder, in three different circumstances:

1. When the fluid has only to surmount the atmospheric pressure, it has a force of dissolution which is proper to it, and which in a charge of 8 lbs. of powder (the specific gravity 944.72, for a 24 pounder,) acts upon the surface of the least resistance with an energy equivalent to 9747.8074 lbs.

2. The fluid retarded in its expansion by a surface of least resistance, whose tenacity (occasioned by the compactness and pressure of the wadding, &c.) is t = 31, acquires by its elasticity of force = 52839.1463 lbs. at the instant when that surface yields to its action.

3. If the tenacity t = 298 lbs., the force of the fluid at the moment when the resisting surface yields to it, will be equivalent to 417371.4275 lbs. If each of these forces be divided by the surface of least resistance, the quotient will indicate the equation of each filament, namely, 1st. That of the force of dissolution = 173.63 grains; 2d. when t = 31 lbs. that of elasticity = 923.26 grains; 3d. when t = 298 lbs. force elastic equal to 7433.99 grains.

Dividing again these latter values by the length of the charges, we shall have for the mean force of each elementary fluid particle,

1. Force of dissolution, 0.14205 grains.

2. When t = 31 lbs. the force elastic = 0.75540 grains.

3. When t = 298 lbs. the force elastic = 6.08174 grains.

It appears, however, that equal charges of powder of the same quality employed in the same piece, produce very different velocities; the more considerable being the resistance to the expansion of the fluid, the less the velocity becomes. Thus, it is found, when t = 31 lbs. the velocity of the ball when expelled at the mouth of the piece, is 1563.6 feet: when t = 298 lbs. v = 1350.9 feet.

The following table will exhibit in one view the velocities with which a 24 lb. ball issues from the mouth of a gun, when propelled with the several charges expressed in the first column.

1st. According to the theory developed in the volume, from which we have made these extracts.

2d. According to the experiments of M. Lombard, at Auxerre, on guns for land service.

3d. According to the experiments of M. Teixiere de Norbec, at Toulon, on guns for sea service.

4th and 5thly. According to the determination of Mr. Robins and Dr. Hutton.

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It is the prodigious celerity of expansion of the flame of fired gunpowder, which is its peculiar excellence, and the circumstance in which it so eminently surpasses all other inventions, either ancient or modern; for as to the momentum of these projectiles only, many of the warlike machines of the ancients produced this in a degree far surpassing that of our heaviest cannon, shot or shells; but the great celerity given to them cannot be approached with facility by any other means than the explosion of powder."

Dr. Hutton, in conjunction with several able officers of the artillery and other gentlemen, made an extensive course of experiments at Woolwich, at the expense of the British government, by the direction of the then master-general of the ordnance, (the late duke of Richmond,) in the years 1783, 1784, and 1785, which demonstrated the following facts:

1. That the velocity continually increases as the gun is longer, though the increase in velocity is but very small in respect of the increase in length; the velocities being in a ratio somewhat less than that of the square roots of the length of the bores, but somewhat greater than the cube roots of the same, and nearly indeed in the middle ratio between the two.

2. That the charge being the same, very little is gained in the range of a gun, by a great increase of its length; since the range or amplitude is nearly as the fifth root of the length of the bore, and gives only about a seventh part more range with a gun of double length.

3. That with the same gun and elevation, the time of the ball's flight is nearly as the range.

4. That no sensible difference is produced in the range or velocity, by varying the weight of the gun, by the use of wads, by different degrees of ramming, or by firing the charge of powder in different parts of it.

5. That a great difference, however, in the velocity, is oc[131]casioned by a small variation in the windage; so much so, indeed, that with the usual windage of one-twentieth of the caliber, no less than between one-third and one-fourth of the whole charge of the powder escapes and is entirely lost; and that as the windage is often greater, one-half the powder is unnecessarily lost.

6. That the resisting force of wood to balls fired into it, is not constant, and that the depths penetrated by different velocities, or charges, are not as the charges themselves, or, which comes to the same thing, as the squares of the velocities.

7. That balls are greatly deflected from the direction they are projected in, sometimes, indeed, so much as 300 or 400 yards in a range of a mile, or almost a fourth part of the whole range, which is nearly a deflection of an angle of 15 degrees.

The observations of Glenie, (History of Gunnery, 1776,) show the theory of projectiles in vacuo by plain geometry, or by means of the square and rhombus; with a method of reducing projections on inclined planes, whether elevated or depressed below the horizontal plane, to those which are made on the horizon.

This author, in his treatise, after stating in page 48, the two following positions of Mr. Robins, namely, "that till the velocity of the projectile surpasses that of 118 feet in a second; the resistance of the air may be estimated to be in the duplicate of the velocity;" that "if the velocity be greater than that of 11 or 1200 feet in a second, the absolute quantity of the resistance will be nearly three times as great as it should be by a comparison with the smaller velocities;" says, that he is certain from some experiments, which he and two other gentlemen tried with a rifle piece properly fitted for experimental purposes, that the resistance of the air to a velocity somewhat less than that mentioned in the first of these proportions, is considerably greater than in the duplicate ratio of the velocity; and that to a celerity somewhat greater than that stated in the second, the resistance is less than that which is treble the resistance of the same ratio. He observes, also, that some of Mr. Robins's own experiments come to this conclusion; since to a velocity no quicker than 200 feet in a second, he found the resistance to be somewhat greater than in that ratio, and remarks, therefore, that "after ascertaining the velocities of the bullets with as much accuracy as possible, I instituted a calculus from principles which had been laying by me for some time before, and[132] found the resistance to approach nearer to that, which exceeds the resistance in the duplicate ratio of the velocity, by that which is the ratio of the velocity, than to that, which is only in the duplicate ratio."

The experiments of Mr. Dalton, confirm the premises of Mr. Robins, that the elasticity of the gases produced from a given quantity of powder, is equally increased by heat and diminished by cold as that of atmospheric air. Hence, as we before remarked, and from direct experiments, he concludes that the elastic fluid produced by the firing of gunpowder, is nearly three-tenths of the weight of the powder itself, which, expanded to the rarity of common air, is about 244 greater than the elasticity of common air, or in other words, than the pressure of the atmosphere. To this, however, must be superadded the increase of expansive power produced by the heat generated, which is very intense. The mere conversion of confined powder into elastic vapour, would exert against the sides of the containing vessel, an expansive force 244 times greater than the elasticity of common air, or, in other words, than the pressure of the atmosphere. If the heat, for the expansion of the gases, should be equal to that of red-hot iron, this would increase the expansion of common air, (and also of all gases) about four times, which in the present instance would be as we stated in the preceding pages, 244 to nearly 1000; so that in a general way it may be assumed, that the expansive force of closely confined powder at the instant of firing, is 1000 times greater than the pressure of common air; and as this latter is known to press with the weight of 14³/₄ pounds on every square inch, the force of explosion of gunpowder is 1000 times this, or 14750 lbs. or about six tons and a half upon every square inch. This enormous force diminishes in proportion as the elastic fluid dilates, being only half the strength when it occupies a double space, one-third of the strength when in a triple space, and so on.

There is one more fact worthy of notice, that Mr. Robins found the strength of powder to be the same in all variations of the density of the atmosphere, but not so in every state of moisture, being much impaired by a damp air, or with powder damped by careless keeping, or any other cause; so that the same powder which will discharge a bullet at the rate of 1700 feet in a second in dry air, will only propel it about 1200 feet when the air is fully moist, and a similar difference was observed between dry and moist powder. The sum of these remarks, with the necessary illustrations, may[133] be found in the extract we have given from Gregory's Mechanics.

Before we mention the different modes of proving powder, we will offer some remarks respecting the use of sulphur in gunpowder. The conclusions on this head are drawn from the experiments made at Essonne, near Paris.

The sulphur is not (properly speaking) a necessary ingredient in gunpowder, since nitre and charcoal alone, well mixed, will explode; but the use of the sulphur seems to be to diffuse the fire instantaneously through the whole mass of powder. But, if the following experiments are correct, it should seem that the advantage gained by using sulphur in increasing the force of explosion only applies to small charges; but in quantities of a few ounces, the explosive, or at least the projecting force of powder without sulphur, is full as great as with sulphur.

The following are a few out of many trials made at the Royal Manufactory at Essonne, near Paris, in the year 1756, to determine the best proportions of all the ingredients. Of powder made with nitre and charcoal alone, 16 of nitre and 4 of charcoal was the strongest, and gave a power of 9 in the eprouvette. With all three ingredients, 16 of nitre, 4 of charcoal, and 1 of sulphur, raised the eprouvette to 15, and both a less and a greater quantity of sulphur produced a smaller effect. Then diminishing the charcoal, a powder of 16 of nitre, 3 of charcoal, and 1 of sulphur gave a power of 17 in the eprouvette, which was the highest produced by any mixture. This last was also tried in the mortar-eprouvette against the common proof powder, and was found to maintain a small superiority. The powder made without sulphur in the proportions above indicated was also tried in the mortar-eprouvette, and with the following singular result: when the charge was only two ounces it projected a sixty pound copper ball 213 feet, and the strongest powder with sulphur projected it 249 feet; but in a charge of three ounces, the former projected the ball 475 feet and the latter only 472 feet; and on the other hand the great inferiority of force in the smaller eprouvette of the powder without sulphur has been just noticed.

It is a fact, known from time immemorial, that by the combustion of bodies caloric is generated, or chemically speaking, is given out in a free state; but the cause was not known until the anti-phlogistic theory of chemistry was established, which abolished as untenable the old doctrine of phlogiston; The quantity of caloric, which passes from a latent to a free[134] state in combustion, as combustion is nothing more than the phenomena occasioned by this transition, is variable; and depends therefore on the substances burnt, and the nature of what is denominated the supporter of combustion.

The experiments of MM. Lavoisier and Laplace have shown the quantity of caloric produced by the combustion of different substances by the calorimeter, a table of which may be seen in Thenard. (Traité de Chimie, &c. t. i, p. 81). From this table it appears, that while a mixture of one pound of saltpetre with one pound of sulphur liquefied, by its combustion, thirty-two pounds of ice, one pound of hydrogen gas melted 313 lbs. phosphorus 100 lbs. and the same quantity of charcoal 96.351 lbs.; and by the detonation of a mixture of one pound of saltpetre with 0.3125 lbs. of charcoal (French weight) melted only 12 lbs. of ice.

In the table of the elevation of temperature by the combustion of different substances, the caloric being communicated to water, (Thenard, Traité de Chimie, vol. i, p. 82), it appears, that by the combustion of equal weights of hydrogen gas, phosphorus, charcoal, and oak, the caloric produced was as follows:

The reader may find some interesting calculations on this subject in Biot's Traité de Physique, &c. tome iv, p. 704, and 716.

It appears also, that in the combustion of one pound of hydrogen gas, six pounds of oxygen were consumed, and according to Crawford's experiment the caloric given out melted 480 lbs. of ice. One pound of phosphorus requires for combustion one and a half pounds of oxygen gas; one pound of charcoal, 2.8; and one pound of sulphur, 1.36. See Thomson's System of Chemistry, vol i, p. 133.

While noticing this subject we may remark, that in combustion heat and light, according to the Lavoiserian doctrine, are given out from the oxygen gas, while the oxygen unites with the combustible body: which has since been modified by supposing, that while caloric is evolved from the gas, the light is emitted from the burning body. There are some facts contrary to the received theory of combustion; that of gunpowder furnishes one. We have also another instance in the combustion of oil of turpentine by nitric acid.

Gunpowder will burn with great avidity in close vessels, or[135] under an exhausted receiver, and we know that the oxygen is already combined with azote in the nitric acid of the nitrate of potassa, and consequently not in a gaseous but a solid state; yet we also know that a great quantity of caloric and light are emitted during the combustion, and nearly all the products are gaseous. The other anomaly is, that as combustion is produced by pouring nitric acid on spirit of turpentine, the oxygen being already combined with azote, caloric and light are evolved by the mixture of the two fluids, from which it is inferred, that oxygen is capable of giving out caloric and light, not only when liquid, but even after combustion. In the instance of gunpowder, in order to explain the combustion which takes place independently of atmospheric air, or any aeriform supporter, "the caloric and light," in the opinion of Dr. Thomson, (Chemistry, i, 128) "must be supposed to be emitted from a solid body during its conversion into gas, which ought to require more caloric and light for its existence in the gaseous state than the solid itself contained."—Mr. Lavoisier (Elements of Chemistry, p. 157,) observes, that he and M. De la Place deflagrated a convenient quantity of nitre and charcoal in an ice apparatus, and found that 12 lbs. of ice were melted by the deflagration of one pound of nitre. After giving the proportions of acid and alkali in nitre, and the quantity of oxygen and azote in the acid, he observes, that during the deflagration, 145¹/₃ grains of carbon have suffered combustion along wit 3738.34 grains of oxygen; and as 12 lbs. of ice were melted, one pound of oxygen burnt in the same manner would have melted 29.5832 lbs. of ice. To which, if we add the quantity of caloric retained by a pound of oxygen, after combining with carbon to form carbonic acid gas, which was already ascertained to be capable of melting 29.13844 lbs. of ice, we shall have for the total quantity of caloric remaining in a pound of oxygen when combined with nitrous gas in the nitric acid, 58.72164; which is the number of pounds of ice, the caloric remaining in the oxygen in that state is capable of melting. In the state of oxygen gas it contains at least 66.66667. M. Lavoisier infers then, that the oxygen in combining with azote to form nitric acid, only loses 7.94502, and that "this enormous quantity of caloric, retained by oxygen in its combination into nitric acid, explains the cause of the great disengagement of caloric during the deflagration of nitre; or, more strictly speaking, upon all occasions of the decomposition of nitric acid." This view of the subject may enable us to explain the production of caloric, in those cases of combustion which[136] cannot be explained on the ordinary principles; and, with regard to gunpowder, the accension of oil of turpentine by nitric acid, and similar cases, we may conclude, as the only rationale which seems applicable, that it is nothing more than the transition of caloric from one state to another, from a latent to a free state. Be this as it may, the combustion in such instances furnishes an anomaly to the already established doctrine, of the absorption of oxygen, or the base of the supporter, and the evolution of caloric from the gas, and not from the combustible; or, in other words, the change of caloric in the supporter from a combined to an uncombined state.

The idea of latent heat may be had from Dr. Black's own expression (Black's Lectures by Robinson:) "By this discovery," says the doctor, "we now see heat susceptible of fixation—of being accumulated in bodies, and, as it were, laid by till we have occasion for it; and are as certain of getting the stored-up heat, as we are certain of getting out of our drawers the things we laid up in them." Murray's System of Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 398, and Watson's Chemical Essays, vol. iii, &c. may be consulted on this subject with advantage. See Introduction.

We will consider, in the next place, the subject of gunpowder proof. The first examination of gunpowder is by rubbing it in the hands, to find whether it contains any irregular hard lumps. If it is too black, it is a sign that it is moist, or else, that it has too much charcoal in it; so, also, if rubbed upon white paper, it blackens it more than good powder does; but, if it be of a kind of azure colour, it is a good indication. If on crushing it with the fingers, the grains break easily, and turn into dust, without feeling hard, it is a criterion, that it has too much coal; or, if in pressing it under the fingers upon a smooth hard board, some grains feel harder than the rest, it is inferred that the sulphur is not well mixed with the nitre. By blasting two drachms of each sort on a copper plate, and comparing it with approved powder. In this proof it should not emit any sparks, nor leave any beads or foulness on the copper. The method of burning, which is commonly employed, Mr. Robins observes, is to fire a small heap on a clean board, and to attend nicely to the flame and smoke it produces, and to the marks it leaves behind on the boards.

Another trial of powder is to expose it to the atmosphere. One pound of each sort, accurately weighed, is exposed to the atmosphere for 17 or 18 days; during which time, if the materials are pure, it will not increase any thing[137] material in weight, by attracting moisture from the air. One hundred pounds of good powder should not absorb more than twelve ounces, or somewhat less than one per cent. See Mr. Coleman's account of the manufacture of powder in England, page 110.

To determine the strength of powder in the easiest manner, is by comparing its effect with improved powder; as, for instance, by using a given weight of powder, as two ounces, and discharging a ball of a known weight, say 64 pounds, from an 8 inch mortar. The best cylinder powder generally gives about 180 feet range, and pit 180, with a ball and charge of the above weights; but the weakest powder, or powder that has been reduced, &c. only from 107 to 117 feet.

The practice adopted in England, we are told, is, that the merchant powder, before it is received into the king's service, is tried against powder of the same kind made at the king's mills, and it is received if it gives a range of ¹/₂₀ less than the king's powder, with which it is compared. In this comparison, both sorts are tried on the same day, and at the same time, and under exactly the same circumstances.

James (Mil'y Dictionary, p. 348) remarks, that the proof of powder as practised by the board of ordnance, besides that of comparing it by combustion on paper, is that 2 drachms, when put into the eprouvette, must raise a weight of 24 pounds to the height of 3¹/₂ inches.

According to Bottée and Riffault, before gunpowder is received into the arsenals of France, for service, it undergoes a variety of proofs; and the instructions for that purpose are contained under forty-two heads, embracing, at the same time, the specific duties of the officer employed for that service. The principal points, however, refer to a standard proof, made with the eprouvette, and differ, in no essential part, from the methods practised elsewhere. There is a uniformity in the French service, which cannot but be admired. In every thing which relates to the ordnance especially, even in the most minute details, the French, without doubt, exceed any other nation.

Having examined the different kinds of proof, not only for gunpowder, but for cannon and small arms, as established by an act of parliament, it appears, that musket powder undergoes another description of proof. A charge of four drachms of fine grain or musket powder in a musket barrel, should perforate, with a steel ball, a certain number of half inch wet elm boards, placed ³/₄ inch asunder, and the first [138] 39 feet 10 inches from the barrel. The powder manufactured at the Royal Powder Mills generally passes through fifteen or sixteen, and restored powder, from nine to twelve.

There are other contrivances made use of, such as powder-triers, acting by a spring, commonly sold at the shops, and others again that move a great weight, throwing it upwards, which is an imperfect kind of eprouvette.

Dr. Hutton is of opinion, that the best eprouvette is a small cannon, the bore of which is about one inch in diameter, and which is to be charged with two ounces of powder, and with powder only; as a ball is not necessary; and the strength of the powder is accurately shown, by the arc of the gun's recoil.

The whole machine is so simple, easy, and expeditious, that, as Dr. Hutton remarks, the weighing of the powder is the chief part of the trouble; and so accurate and uniform, that the successive repetition, or firings, with the same quantity of the same sort of powder, hardly ever make a difference in the recoil of the one-hundredth part of itself.

Gregory (Treatise of Mechanics, vol. ii, p. 178) has given a more particular description of the eprouvette of Dr. Hutton; namely, that it is a small brass gun, 2¹/₂ feet long, suspended by a metallic stem, or rod, turning, by an axis, on a firm and strong frame, by means of which, the piece oscillates in a circular arch. A little below the axis, the stem divides into two branches, reaching down to the gun, to which the lower ends of the branches are fixed, the one near the muzzle, the other near the breech of the piece. The upper end of the stem is firmly attached to the axis, which turns very freely by its extremities in the sockets of the supporting frame; by which means, the gun and stem vibrate together in a vertical plane, with a very small degree of friction. The charge is the same we have mentioned, usually about two ounces, without any ball, and then fired; by the force of the explosion, the piece is made to recoil or vibrate, describing an arch or angle, which will be greater or less, according to the quantity or strength of the powder.

To measure the quantity of recoil, and consequently the strength of the powder, a circular brazen or silver arch of a convenient extent, and of a radius equal to its distance below the axis, is fixed against the descending two branches of the stem, and graduated into divisions, according to the purpose required by the machine: viz.

1st. Into equal parts, or degrees, for the purpose of determining the angle actually described in the vibration.

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2nd. Into equal parts, according to the chords, being, in fact, 100 times the double sines of the half angles, and running up to 100, as equivalent to 90 degrees.

3d. Into unequal parts, according to the versed sines; they are, in truth, 100 times the versed sines of our common tables, 141¹/₂ corresponding with 90 degrees. These serve to compare the forces.

The divisions in these scales are pointed out by an index, which is carried on the arch during the oscillation, and then, stopping there, shows the actual extent of the vibration. Two ounces of powder, give, on an average, according to the experiments of professor Gregory, about 36 on the chords, or about 21° on the arch. A more detailed account, with diagrams, may be seen, by consulting Hutton's Tracts, vol. iii, p. 153.

The eprouvette constructed by the late Mr. Ramsden, differs from the preceding simply by the gun's recoiling in a direction parallel to itself, instead of its vibrating as a pendulum. The gun is suspended by two hanging frames, which serve to make it rise and fall, during its recoil and return, so as always to retain the horizontal direction. The degrees are measured upon a fixed arch, by means of a moveable index, nearly as in Dr. Hutton's eprouvette.

We remarked, that the common powder-triers are small strong barrels, in which a determinate quantity of powder is fired, and the force of expansion measured by the action excited on a strong spring, or a great weight. The French eprouvette is usually a mortar of seven inches (French) in caliber, which with three ounces of powder should throw a copper globe of sixty pounds weight to the distance of 300 feet. No powder is admitted that does not answer this trial. This eprouvette, however, has been improved, as we shall mention hereafter. These methods have been objected to, the former because the spring is moved by the instantaneous stroke of the flame, and not by its continued pressure, which is somewhat different; and the other, on account of the tediousness attending its use, when a large number of barrels of powder are to be tried.

J. Bodington of London, invented a machine to try the force of gunpowder. M. the chevalier d'Arcys made an eprouvette on the principle of Mr. Robins. M. Le Roy proposed to employ the different elastic forces of inflammable air, but his method has never been used. M. Tresnel also proposed an eprouvette, which was announced in the[140] French journal, entitled Nouvelles de la République des Lettres et des Arts, par M. de la Blancherie, for 1782, p. 190.

It is hardly necessary to observe, that the eprouvette has undergone some improvements: thus, the eprouvette of Darcy consists of a cannon suspended at the extremity of a bar of iron, and the graduated arc measures the recoil; the eprouvette of Regnier is nearly the same, and the arc determines the force of the powder.

A description of mortar-eprouvettes generally, may be seen in the work of MM. Bottée et Riffault, (Traité sur l'art de Fabriquer la poudre à canon,) and in the Memoirs of Proust (Journal de Physique, tome lxx, et suiv.), &c.

I saw a model of an improved eprouvette, which appeared to possess every advantage, at the Ordnance Arsenal near Albany; an index hand moved in an arc.

Quicklime is said to increase the force of powder. Dr. Baine says, that three ounces of pulverized quicklime being added to one pound of gunpowder, its force will be augmented one-third; shake the whole together, till the white colour of the lime disappears.

The preservation of gunpowder in properly constructed magazines, of which we will have occasion to speak hereafter, is a subject that should claim our attention. The greatest difficulty, if any, exists at sea, and on this head we have a variety of opinions.

Mr. James (Military Dictionary, p. 348) says, that it has been recommended to preserve gunpowder at sea by means of boxes lined with sheet-lead. M. D. Gentien, a naval officer, tried the experiment by lodging a quantity of gunpowder and parchment cartridges in a quarter of the ship which was sheathed in this manner. After they had been stowed for a considerable time, the gunpowder and cartridges were found to have suffered little from the moisture; whilst the same quantity, when lodged in wooden cases, became nearly half destroyed.

It has been recommended to line powder magazines with lead, as a mean for preserving the powder from dampness. The lead, it seems, so far attracts moisture, as to condense it. In the last volume of the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, is a memoir on leaden cartridges, by Wm. Jones, Esq. the late secretary of the navy, which, besides preserving the powder, has advantages over either paper or flannel. See Magazine.

What is termed the analysis of gunpowder, is nothing more than the separation of its component parts, and determining[141] the relative proportions of its respective ingredients. We may indeed examine the quality of the nitrate of potassa, by dissolving a portion of powder in distilled water, and employing the reagents mentioned under the head of nitre; but for the purpose of separating, as well as determining the proportion of saline matter, charcoal and sulphur, it may be readily accomplished in the following manner: Take a given quantity of gunpowder and affuse it in distilled water sufficient to dissolve the salt; after suffering it to remain for some time, applying heat to assist the solution, decant the whole upon a filter of unsized paper. The saltpetre and other saline matter will pass through, and the sulphur and charcoal remain on the filter. By evaporating the solution to dryness, and weighing it, the quantity of saltpetre will be found; or, after drying the mass on the filter, and weighing it, by subtracting its weight from that of the original, it will give the loss sustained, which of course is the saltpetre. By exposing the mass to a heat sufficient to evaporate the sulphur, it will be expelled; the loss sustained will indicate its quantity, and the weight of the residue the proportion of charcoal. The sulphur may be even separated by subjecting gunpowder itself to the action of a well regulated heat; it will sublime, and leave the nitre and charcoal. It takes a much higher temperature to inflame gunpowder than is required to volatilize sulphur. The method of extracting the nitre from damaged powder, we have already noticed. See nitre. This process also depends on the solubility of the nitre, and the insolubility of the charcoal and sulphur. Bishop Watson, in his Chemical Essays, proposed the examination of gunpowder by solution and sublimation; a process sufficiently accurate. If it should be our object to ascertain the presence and quantity of foreign substances, in the saltpetre, this may be accomplished by following the process already given, viz: by collecting the precipitates, &c. determining their weights, and making the necessary allowance, for the new compounds, as the carbonates of lime, sulphate of barytes, muriate of silver, and the like.

Baumé proposed the analysis of powder by sublimation, in order to separate the sulphur, using however a graduated heat. Another mode consists in distilling the powder in a retort with water, and collecting the sulphur and sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and then separating the charcoal, &c. A third process was recommended by Pelletier, after the separation of the nitre, by subliming a mixture of the residue with mercury, which, however, presents no advantages. The[142] use of nitric acid has also been recommended, in order to acidify the sulphur. For this purpose nitric acid is poured on the residue, and the whole is digested for some time, renewing the acid as it is decomposed. By this means the carbon, as well as the sulphur, is acidified, and carbonic acid gas with deutoxide of azote are disengaged, leaving the sulphuric acid formed by the union of oxygen with the sulphur, in the remaining fluid, from which it is separated by nitrate of barytes, and its quantity ascertained by the sulphate of barytes produced. The proportion of sulphur, in the sulphuric acid, is then calculated.

Caustic potassa has been employed for the separation of the sulphur from the charcoal. It unites with the sulphur, forming a sulphuret; and as sulphuretted hydrogen gas is also produced, the sulphuret must likewise contain the hydroguretted sulphuret of potassa. The charcoal is not acted upon.

M. Vito Caravelli, professor of chemistry at Naples, (Elements d'Artillerie, 1773,) has given a more simple process for the separation of these substances, which depends on their specific gravity. When mixed with water, the sulphur will deposite, and the charcoal float on the fluid.

Vauquelin directed his attention to this subject, and has recommended various processes, not only for the separation of the sulphur and charcoal, but also the nitre.

The process of Smithson Tennant is nearly of the same nature.

The separation of sulphur from charcoal may be effected more perfectly, according to Brande, by introducing the mixture into a small retort furnished with a stop cock, exhausted, and filled with chlorine gas; the chlorine will unite with the sulphur, forming a chloride, and leave the charcoal, which may be washed, dried, and weighed.

Baumé found, that when all the sulphur is expelled which will be driven off in the heat, a certain portion will still remain, and not burn away at a lower temperature than will consume the charcoal; so that to the last the burning residue will smell strongly sulphurous. This retained portion of sulphur he finds, by the results of many other experiments, to be very uniformly about one-twenty-fourth part of the whole sulphur employed; whence, for all common purposes, an adequate correction may be made, by estimating that the slow weak combustion of the residue, after the nitre has been extracted, destroys only ²³/₂₄ths of the sulphur instead of the whole. On trying to separate them by an alkaline solution, he found some of the sulphur to remain undisturbed, and still adher[143]ing to the charcoal. In consequence of this circumstance, it is recommended, to insure a perfect analysis, to separate the nitre in the first place from gunpowder, by hot water, and to treat the residue with nitric acid. After the sulphur is acidified, the addition of nitrate or muriate of barytes will separate, effectually, the sulphuric acid from the fluid, and form a sulphate of barytes; this being collected, washed, dried, and weighed, will give the quantity of sulphuric acid, and of sulphur in the acid, by the well known proportion of acid in the salt, and of sulphur in the acid. One hundred parts of sulphate of barytes, when perfectly dry, indicate fourteen and a half parts of sulphur; or, which is the same, according to Chenevix, one hundred and fifty-five grains denote twenty-two and a half grains of sulphur.

The observations of M. Champy and professor Proust on humid powder, seem to place the quantity of water absorbed, at 8, 10, and 14 per cent. These proportions, it is evident, depend greatly on the quality of the nitre; and if deliquescent salts exist in any quantity, the absorption, and consequently the increase of weight must be greater. Chemical examination will readily determine this fact.

The different sorts of gunpowder are usually distinguished by marks on the heads of the barrels. Gunpowder marks are various. All gunpowder for service is mixed in proportions according to its strength, so as to bring it as much as possible to a mean and uniform force. This sort of powder, says Adye, (Bombardier and Pocket Gunner,) is marked with a blue L. G. and the figure ¹/₂; or with F. ¹/₂ G. and the figure 3, whose mean force is from 150 to 160 of the eprouvette. This is the powder used for practice, for experiments, and for service. The white L. G. or F. G. is a second sort of powder of this quality. It is sometimes stronger but not so uniform as the L. G. It is, therefore, generally used in filling shells, or such other things as do not require accuracy. The red L. G. F. G. denotes powder in the British service, made at the King's mills, with the coal made in cylinders, and is used at present only in particular cases, and in comparisons, and to mix with other sorts to bring them to a mean force. The figures 1, 2 or 3 denote that the powder is made from saltpetre, obtained from the rough. Other marks are also in use to designate the rifle, musket, cannon powder, and the like.

Powder merchants recover damaged gunpowder, by putting a part of the powder on a sail cloth, and adding an equal[144] quantity of good powder, which is well mixed with it, and the mixture is then dried.

Sec. VIII. Of Lampblack.

Lampblack, which is nothing more than a finer kind of coal, is so named from its being produced and originally made by the combustion of oil in lamps. It is hardly necessary to say, that it is formed in the combustion of turpentine, various species of the pinus, tar, pitch, rosin, &c. as all these substances yield it more or less, and of different qualities. It is the result of imperfect combustion; for, if the combustion were rapid, and the smoke itself consumed, we would then have only carbonic acid. This fact is exemplified in the argand lamp, which, on account of the glass cylinder, consumes its own smoke. The process of forming lampblack is conducted in lampblack houses. After the combustion has ceased, the soot or lampblack is swept down, as it collects above and on the sides of the room. When it is obtained by burning the dregs and coarser parts of tar, furnaces of a particular construction are used. The smoke is conveyed through tubes into boxes, each covered with linen, in the form of a cone. Upon this linen the soot is deposited, from which it is, from time to time, beaten off into boxes, and afterwards packed in barrels for sale. There is also a very fine black, superior in many respects to lampblack, especially in making the ink for copperplate printers, prepared by carbonizing grape stalks, &c. in close iron vessels.

There are two kinds of lampblack in common use. One is the light soot, from burning wood, of the pine and other resinous kinds, usually made in Sweden. In Sweden the impure turpentine is also burnt for this purpose. It is collected from incisions made in pine and fir-trees, and the turpentine is boiled down with a small quantity of water, and strained, while hot, through a bag; and while this part is used for another purpose, the dregs and pieces of bark remaining in the strainer, are burnt in a low oven, whence the smoke is conveyed through a long passage into a square chamber, which contains a sack, as above stated, where the greater part of the lampblack collects, and the remainder is caught in the chamber.

The other kind of lampblack is formed by carbonization, a process similar to that for preparing the black, called blue-black, from grape stalks, or for preparing the German black, a pigment made by charring principally the lees of wine and husks of grapes.

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The lampblack made in Philadelphia, for the purpose of printers' ink, is prepared by the combustion of tar. One barrel of Carolina tar will produce forty pounds of soot or lampblack.

A patent was granted 1798 to a Mr. Row, (Repository of Arts, vol. x.) for a newly invented mineral lampblack. It is nothing more than the smoke obtained by the combustion of pit coal. In the county of Sarrbrook on the Rhine, are some establishments for making coke and lampblack at the same time; and from 100 lbs. of coal, 33 lbs. of coke, and 3¹/₂ of lampblack are obtained. Jeanson (Archives des Découvertes, &c. i, p. 21) has described a process for carbonizing oil.

Lampblack has the same chemical properties as charcoal, and being remarkably fine, and containing sometimes a portion of oil, is used on that account in the composition of some fire-works. Its quality may be known by its colour, and, when burnt, leaving no residue. It may be sufficient to remark, that like charcoal, it decomposes nitric acid; and the nitrates, when mixed with it, and projected into a red-hot crucible, will deflagrate or produce a vivid combustion. It may therefore be used in all kinds of fire-works, in which charcoal is employed. Concentrated nitric acid, when poured on lampblack, previously dried, will produce combustion. It is to the carbon, as well as the hydrogen, in oil of turpentine, that turpentine inflames when brought in contact with nitric acid; and although much charcoal is deposited, yet a considerable part passes off in the state of carbonic acid gas. By a proper treatment, lampblack like charcoal may be converted into artificial tannin by nitric acid. It has also antiseptic qualities; but to be used for this purpose it should first be exposed to heat, in order to drive off any oil which it may have contracted, or with which it might be contaminated. The quality of lampblack may, we suspect, be improved by bringing it to a state of ignition in close iron vessels. If required intensely black, as for the making of printers' ink, this process might be advantageously used. Mixed with gum water, it makes a durable writing ink, or, according to Mr. Close, by mixing it with a solution of copal in oil of lavender. This ink is not, like the common kind, acted upon by acids.

Sec. IX. Of Soot.

Soot, or that substance formed by the combustion of wood, &c. which collects in chimnies, is used in some of the pyro[146]technical preparations, partly to assist the flame, and partly to modify its appearance. It is found, that soot, produced by the combustion of wood, is formed by the condensation of the carbon evolved in the smoke. It also contains volatile products, the nature of which, depends on the kind of combustible. Wood-soot is considered a good manure, on account of the carbon and some volatile salts, it is said to contain. That it contains ammonia, is evident, since it may be detected by experiment; and that this alkali is combined with carbonic acid, and sometimes with muriatic acid, a number of facts prove. Soot, then, when used in fire-works, may, like sal ammoniac, but in a lesser degree, produce a particular coloured flame. When soot is well washed in water, in order to free it from saline and other soluble matter, and probably from pyroacetic acid, and then pulverized, it forms the pigment called bistre. It is a fact, that the excrement of some animals, the camel for instance, which feed on saline vegetables, when burnt, will yield a soot, which contains an abundance of muriate of ammonia, or sal ammoniac. Hence, by re-subliming this soot, sal ammoniac was originally prepared in Egypt. The quantity of muriate of ammonia, contained in the soot of camels' dung, is considerable. It is found that 26 lbs. of soot yield on an average 6 lbs. of that salt; See Sal Ammoniac. Camels' dung, and in fact the dried excrement of animals, furnish a very good fuel. In Egypt it is used with advantage. The soot of oil, &c. is of a different kind; it is the substance, which forms our lampblack.

Sec. X. Of Turpentine, Rosin, and Pitch.

All these substances enter into the composition of fire-works, either to increase the rapidity of combustion, as in incendiary fire-works, or, in some cases, as with rosin, to produce a coloured flame. That they contain carbon and hydrogen, as their principal ingredients, is well known; to which we may attribute their rapid combustion, and the facility with which they decompose nitrous salts. The Greek fire, for example, owed, it is said, its powerful effect to turpentine, which, with other substances employed, made the composition remarkably inflammable, and the decomposition of the nitre, (which some say it contained) so rapid, as even to defy the action of water.

All of the turpentines are obtained from different species of pinus. Common turpentine is the resinous juice, which exudes chiefly from the Pinus Sylvestris, or Scotch fir, and is obtained by boring holes into the trunks of the trees, early[147] in the spring, and placing vessels beneath for its reception. This turpentine, and in fact all others, are composed of rosin and a volatile oil. The latter is obtained by distilling the turpentine with water. It passes over with the water, from which it is afterwards separated, and is then known by the name of the essential oil, or spirit of turpentine. The substance, remaining in the still, is common rosin, or yellow rosin, known likewise by the names of fidlers' rosin and colophony. Tar is also obtained from the roots and refuse parts of the fir tree, by cutting them in billets, piling these in a proper manner, in pits or ovens, formed for the purpose, covering them partly over, and setting them on fire. During the combustion, a black and thick matter, which is tar, falls to the bottom, and is conducted into barrels.

Pitch is nothing more than tar boiled down to a solid consistence; it is usually made, however, by melting together coarse hard rosin, and an equal quantity of tar. The ancient pitch possessed a flavour and fragrance. White pitch is the same as the white turpentine.

Melted pitch, sulphur, and camphor, mixed, when nearly cold, with pulverized saltpetre, and afterwards thinned with spirit of turpentine, will form a composition, that is very inflammable, and will almost resist the action of water. A similar composition must have formed the Greek fire, of which, according to Beckman, there were several kinds.

The turpentine trees furnish various products: Thus, the Pinus Abies, or spruce fir, yields the Burgundy pitch, and its branches produce the Essence of Spruce; but other species of pinus are used for the same purpose, which are nearly allied to it, and which grow abundantly in Canada. From the Pinus laryx, or larch, Venice Turpentine is obtained; but that sold, is usually made by melting rosin, and adding the spirit of turpentine. From the sap of the larch, the Russians prepare a gummy substance, known in Russia by the name of Orenburg gum. Turpentine is extracted in France, in great quantity, from the pinus maratima. Gallipot, colophony, tar, pitch, &c. are likewise obtained from it.

The turpentine of cedar, according to Dr. Pocoke (Travels through Egypt) was employed by the Egyptians for embalming, the operation being performed in several ways. It was injected, and used with salt, nitre, &c.

Pitch, tar, and turpentine all enter into sundry compositions, used in war. The different incendiary preparations, noticed in the last part of the work, are composed, in general, of either one or all of these substances. Their use is obvious. Being very inflammable, and brought in contact with[148] gunpowder, nitrate of potassa, &c. they burn with great rapidity, and consume every thing before them. Hence the tourteaux of the French, tarred links, and fascines, carcasses, &c. owe their effect to the presence of these substances.

Rosins are considered to be volatile oils, saturated with oxygen.

Thus, or frankincense, of which there are several varieties, has been long used in fire-works; it is frequently employed in the composition of odoriferous fire. It is obtained from the pinus abies, and appears in tears. During winter, the wounds made in fir trees become incrusted with a brittle substance, called barras or gallipot, consisting of rosin united with a small portion of oil. All rosins, according to the experiments of Gay-Lussac, and Thenard, (Recherches physico-chimiques) are composed of a great quantity of carbon and hydrogen, united with a small quantity of oxygen. To this, we attribute their great inflammability, and it enables us to account for the rapid decomposition of nitre, in those preparations, in which nitre and resinous substances are employed. See General Theory of Pyrotechny, sec. ii.

For the accension which takes place by mixing oil of turpentine and nitric acid, see the properties of nitric acid, under the head of nitre.

Morey (Silliman's Journal, vol. ii, p. 121) observes, that a small quantity of spirit of turpentine being added to a mixture of iron-filings, sulphuric acid, and water, the hydrogen gas produced, will burn with a very pleasant white flame, and without smoke. He also observes, that, if the vapour of spirit of turpentine be made to pass through a tube, covered at the upper end with a fine wire gauze, it burns with much smoke; but, if a quantity of atmospheric air be allowed to mix with it, the smoke ceases, and the flame continues white. If more still be added, the flame lessens, and becomes partly blue. By adding still more and more, it will burn with a very small flame, entirely blue, and with a singular musical sound. If still more be added, the flame, and every ray of light cease; but that the combustion still continues, is certain, from the explosive detonating noise, continuing to be distinctly heard.

Mr. Morey further remarks, that, if tar, containing a considerable proportion of water, is dropped on brick or metal, at a temperature, which will readily evaporate them, the vapours will burn with white shooting streaks, much flame, and without smoke, while the water lasts. Inflamed drops of tar, burn, while falling, with a red flame, and much[149] smoke; but, on reaching boiling water, the smoke instantly disappears, and streaks of a white flame shoot up. He also says, that, if water in one cylinder be made to boil, and the steam be led to the bottom of another, containing rosin, or tar, at a high temperature, after passing up through it, the water, together with the vapourized portion of the rosin or tar, will, when the preparations are properly regulated, burn with an intense white flame, and no smoke; much the greater part of which appears, (by alternately shutting the steam out, or letting it in) to be derived from the water; and also, that if steam be led over the surface of tar in a cylinder, and made to force out a small stream of it through a pipe, into which a quantity of steam is also admitted, and made to mix intimately with it, they burn, with a great body of flame and intense heat, and without smoke, provided the proportions are well regulated. These facts are remarkable, and may probably lead to some useful applications. That water is decomposed, appears more than probable. If water is thrown, in considerable quantities, on oil or tar, in a state of inflammation, as Morey observes, the flame is greatly increased; and if ever so small a drop of water fall into oil at a temperature near boiling, an explosion will take place. He draws the following conclusion, from these circumstances; that we have only to pass the steam of water through oil, heated to the temperature, at which it boils, or takes fire, to produce combustion.

Sec. XI. Of Common Coal, or Pitcoal.

All the variety of coals, belonging to the coal family, are composed principally of charcoal and bitumen, with small quantities of earthy, and metallic matter. Whether we consider the formation of coal, the localities or situation in which it occurs, whether in beds or strata, accompanying other minerals, such as clay-slate, bituminous schistus, sandstone, &c. is of no moment, except so far as the situation in which it is found, indicates or determines its character and qualities. The different kinds of coal owe their variety to the presence or absence of bituminous matter, whether great or small, the quantity of the carbonaceous ingredient, and the presence or absence of anthracite, and other foreign substances. Coal, which is, or ought to be preferred in fire-works, should contain the greatest quantity of bituminous matter; and, while it contains the due proportion of carbon, should be entirely free from anthracite. Coal, and all other inflammable fossils, are characterized by their inflammability, insolubility in water, alcohol, and acids, and by their specific gravity,[150] which scarcely exceeds 2, unless loaded with foreign matter. Coal surcharged with bitumen, burns with a bright flame, and, by distillation, affords more carburetted hydrogen gas, which is used for gas light. Common coal, or pitcoal, burns in cakes, more or less, during combustion. Besides charcoal and bitumen, it contains sometimes pyrites, sulphate of iron, and earth. Slate-coal, however, contains more clay.

The collieries, from which pitcoal is obtained, are more or less extensive in England, and elsewhere. Immense beds of coal are found near Pittsburgh, and Richmond. The Lehigh, and other localities in the United States, produce it also in abundance, but of various qualities. Coal districts, or places in which it is found, may be considered a valuable acquisition to a country; and as coal is so essential in many manufactories, it is a satisfaction to know, that our resources in this particular, are almost inexhaustible;—a fact, which shows, that, while our national industry is the main pillar of national independence, in its true acceptation, the arts, which require a supply of coal, will, for centuries to come, be abundantly furnished with it.

When coal is exposed to the action of heat, in iron retorts or cylinders for the preparation of coal gas, or when it is exposed to heat in coke-ovens, the bitumen, &c. are disengaged, and there remains a coal called coke. Coke, therefore, is nothing more than charred pitcoal.

Mr. Mushet made some valuable experiments on the carbonization and incineration of coals. He found that the Scotch cannel-coal afforded 56.57 volatile matter, 39.43 charcoal, and 4 ashes; while the stone-coal, found under basalt, gave 16.66 volatile matter, 69.74 charcoal, and 13.6 ashes, and oak wood, 80.00 volatile matter, 19.5 charcoal, and 0.5 ashes. The quantity of gas, however, depends entirely on the quality of the coal. A temperature of about 600° to 700° is sufficient to disengage it. A pound of good cannel coal, properly treated in a small apparatus, will yield five cubic feet of gas, equivalent in illuminating power to a mould candle, six in the pound. One pound of coal, on a large scale, affords only 3¹/₂ cubic feet of gas. A gas jet, which consumes half a cubic foot per hour, gives a steady light equal to that of a candle of the above-mentioned size.

The cannel coal, known in Scotland by the name of parrot coal, is very inflammable, takes fire immediately, and produces a brilliant flame. It is used by the poor as a substitute for candles. This coal, we have seen, furnishes an abundance of carburetted hydrogen gas. It has the appearance of jet, and admits of being turned in a lathe.

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Stone coal, Kilkenny coal, Welch coal, and glance coal consist almost entirely of charcoal; and hence, when laid on burning coals, they become red-hot, emit a blue lambent flame, in the same manner as charcoal, and at length are wholly consumed, leaving behind a portion of red ashes. They burn without smoke or soot.

The pitch coal, which has a brownish-black colour, and is generally found massive in plates, the bovey coal, called brown coal, and bituminous wood, with the anthracite coal, and some others of lesser note, form the remaining varieties of coal.

When coal is employed in fire-works, it is to be pulverized, and sifted in the usual way. For some purposes it is preferred to charcoal, in consequence of the bitumen it contains, which appears to contribute to the rapidity of the combustion. It is to be observed, that, as the base of coal is carbon, its action is the same as charcoal, and therefore, by producing the same effects, or nearly so, as charcoal itself, the phenomena it presents are analogous. As 12.709 parts of carbon, according to Kirwan, are required to decompose 100 parts of nitrate of potassa, we may readily ascertain the quantity of real carbon in any specimen of coal. According to Kirwan, 50 grains of Kilkenny coal will decompose 480 grains of nitrate of potassa, from which it is inferred, that ten grains would have decomposed 96 of nitrate of potassa, precisely the same quantity of charcoal, which would have produced the same effect. Therefore, Kilkenny coal is composed almost entirely of carbon. Cannel coal, when treated in the same manner with nitrate of potassa, left a residuum of 3.12 in the hundred parts of earthy ashes; and 66.5 of it were required to decompose 480 grains of nitrate of potassa, but 50 of charcoal would have been sufficient. From this experiment, it appears, that 66.5 grains of cannel coal contain 50 grains of charcoal, and 2.08 of earth; the remaining 14.42 grains must be bitumen. In a similar manner, by knowing the quantity of coal required to decompose a given quantity of nitrate of potassa, when melted in a crucible, the quantity of carbon in any variety of this substance may be ascertained.

With respect to the earthy and metallic ingredients of coal, we may ascertain them by burning the coal, with free access of air. What remains unburnt must be considered an impurity. Its weight may be ascertained, and its nature by analysis. As the object, however, is generally to determine the relative proportion of combustible matter, or carbon, which different species of coal are capable of yielding, that point may be determined in the manner already stated.

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That coal originates from vegetables, whatever opinion may be formed to the contrary, we may fairly infer from a variety of vegetable remains, and impressions of animals that are both found in the strata of coal, and in earthy strata above and below them. Of its submarine origin, there can also be no doubt; or why do we find in it shells, the impression of fish, and other productions of the ocean? That coals grow like vegetables, an opinion with the uninformed, is contrary to fact, and the nature of things.

We may notice, in this place, another substance which sometimes is found partially carbonized; we mean turf.

Turf or peat, obtained from morasses, consists of a multitude or congeries of vegetable fibres, partly in a decomposed state, and is frequently so inflammable as to inflame by a spark. Very extensive morasses are found in some countries from which the inhabitants are supplied with fuel. Some improvements in the manner of preparing turf for use, have been made; that of charring it in kilns is one. By this process it kindles sooner, burns with less air, and forms a moderate and uniform fire, without much smoke, though it is not so lasting as that produced by turf. The method of reducing turf to coal is still practised in some parts of Bohemia, Silesia, and Upper Saxony, which was first proposed in 1669, by John Joachim Becher, who also recommended, at that time, a process for depriving coals of their sulphur, by burning them in an oven, and the use of the oil procured from them. What are our modern patents on this subject? What are lord Dundonald's coke ovens and coal tar? Are they original? Boyle (Usefulness of Natural Philosophy,) speaks of Becher's invention. Anderson, (History of Commerce,) however, observes, that something of the kind was attempted before Becher's time; for in the year 1627, John Hacket and Octavius Strada obtained a patent for their invention of rendering coals as "useful as wood for fuel in houses, without hurting any thing by their smoke."

With respect to turf, it appears that Hans Charles von Carlowitz, to save wood, introduced the use of it in Saxony, in the smelting houses, in 1708.

Turf has been known for a long time. It was used from the earliest periods, in the greater part of Lower Saxony, and throughout the Netherlands; as is fully proved by Pliny's account of the Chauci, who inhabited that part of Germany. Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. xvi, c. i.) observes, that they pressed together with their hands, a kind of mossy earth which they dried by the wind rather than by the sun, and which they used, not only for cooking their victuals, but also for warming[153] their bodies. We also read that a morass in Thessaly, having become dry, took fire, and the same thing ensued in some part of Russia, where a morass burned several days and did much damage. Very dry turf is nearly as inflammable as spunk, and when prepared with nitre, has been used for the same purpose. See Pyrotechnical sponge.

Ure (Chemical Dictionary) observes, that "turf has been charred lately in France, it is said by a peculiar process, &c." The truth is, that the charring of turf is by no means a recent invention, as we stated above. Sonnini (Journal, &c.) says, that it is superior to wood. It kindles slower than charcoal of wood, but emits more flame and burns longer. In a gold-smith's furnace, it fused eleven ounces of gold in eight minutes, while wood charcoal required sixteen.

Turf frequently contains phosphoric acid; for bogs or morasses, and bog-iron ores abound, more or less with it, in different states of combination. The siderite of Bergmann which he supposed to be a peculiar metal, and found in bog-ore, is a phosphate of iron. The native Prussian blue, which also occurs in such localities, is generally admitted to be a combination of phosphoric acid iron and alumina.

Sec. XII. Of Naphtha, Petroleum, and Asphaltum.

Naphtha, petroleum, and asphaltum are all modifications of bituminous oil; and as they are all inflammable, naphtha being the most so, they have been used in the preparation of fire-works.

It will be sufficient to remark, that naphtha or rock oil is a yellow or brownish bituminous fluid, of a strong, penetrating odour, and so light as to float on spirits of wine. By exposure to the air, it acquires the consistence of petroleum. It takes fire on the approach of a lighted taper, and burns with a bluish flame, yielding a thick smoke. Plutarch and Pliny both affirm, that the substance with which Medea destroyed Creusa, the daughter of Creon, was naphtha. She sent a dress to the princess, which had been immersed in, or covered over with the oil, and which burst into flames as soon as she approached the fire of the altar. Plutarch relates that Alexander the great, was amused and astonished with the effects of naphtha, which were exhibited to him at Ecbatana. On the shores of the Caspian sea, it is burnt in lamps, instead of oil. There are copious springs of this oil in that neighbourhood, and it is sometimes obtained by distilling bituminous substances.

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Hanway (Travels through Russia into Persia, i, 263,) mentions the naphtha of Baku, and remarks that the earth is strongly impregnated with it; for, he adds, by taking up two or three inches of the surface, and applying a live coal, the part which is so uncovered, immediately takes fire, almost before the coal touches the earth. Eight horses were consumed by the fire from naphtha, being under a roof where the surface of the ground was turned up, and, by some accident took fire. A cane, or tube, even of paper, set two inches in the ground, and the top of it touched with a live coal, and blown upon, immediately emits a flame, without hurting either the cane or paper, provided the edges be covered with clay. Three or four of these lighted canes will boil water in a pot.

Pinkerton, (Petralogia ii, p. 148,) speaks of the naphtha of Baku, which exists on the western side of the Caspian sea, being carried to Constantinople, "where it formed the chief ingredient of the noted composition called the Grecian Fire; which, burning with increased intensity under water, became a most formidable instrument against an inimical fleet." See Greek fire.

Naphtha is obtained of several qualities by suffering it to remain in pits or reservoirs. The Persians, who use it in their lamps, and to boil their food, find it to burn best with a small mixture of ashes. They keep it at a small distance from their houses, in earthen vessels, under ground, to prevent any accident by fire, of which it is extremely susceptible.

Hanway speaks also of what is called the everlasting fire, about ten miles from Baku, which is an object of devotion to the followers of Zoroaster. Near the altar of their temple, he observes, is a large hollow cane, from the end of which issues a blue flame, which the Indians pretend has continued to burn ever since the flood, and which, they fancy, will last to the end of the world.

We have no hesitation in believing, that the ancients made use of this oil in their exhibitions; and, from its properties, that when mixed with other substances, it would make a brilliant fire-work.

Petroleum, called also mineral tar, is less fluid and less transparent than naphtha. It has an oily consistence, more or less viscid. It occurs of a black or brown colour. It burns rapidly, but not so readily as naphtha, and exhales a black smoke. By distillation, it forms a liquid like naphtha, and leaves a thick tar in the retort.

It exudes from rocks, is found in wells, &c. In Pegu, the wells furnish annually 400,000 hogsheads. It is used[155] there in the place of oil for lamps. When boiled with rosin, it is used for painting houses, and the bottoms of vessels. In the embalming of dead bodies, it was employed by the ancient Egyptians; and, in some countries, clay, soaked in it, is used as fuel.

It is found in the United States, in Kentucky, Ohio, the western parts of Pennsylvania, in New York at the Seneca lake, &c. The Seneca or Genessee oil is the same bitumen.

When petroleum is exposed to the atmosphere, it acquires a greater degree of consistence, and passes into another bituminous substance, called maltha. This has the properties, and frequently the appearance of pitch. When burnt, it yields more smoke and soot than petroleum. According to its original meaning, it signifies a kind of cement; and the maltha mentioned by Pliny, Heineccius, Festus, and others, which was employed in the same manner as our modern sealing wax, was a mixture of pitch and wax, and was also used to make reservoirs, pipes, &c. water-tight. Maltha also sometimes resembles wax. Mr. Kirwan, however, gave it the name of mineral tallow.

Mineral or Barbadoes tar is somewhat thicker than petroleum, and nearly of the consistence of common tar. It is used for the same purposes as the ordinary petroleum. Elastic bitumen, a variety between the softer and harder bitumens, resembles caoutchouc. It burns with a bright flame, and bituminous odour.

Asphaltum, or solid bitumen, is much harder than pitch, brittle, and of a brownish-black colour. It burns freely, and leaves but little residue. In Judea, it is found on the waters of the Dead sea, or the lake of Asphaltes. It is also called Jews' pitch. It was employed by the Egyptians for embalming under the name of mumia mineralis.

Both maltha and asphaltum were used by the ancients as a cement. The walls of Babylon were cemented with these substances, as obtained from the river Is, which falls into the Euphrates. It may be observed, that those countries, which yield bitumen, contain salt springs, and it frequently accompanies pyrites. Limestone, particularly the black, contains it, and the colour is often owing to its presence. The stink stone, or bituminous carbonate of lime, is of this kind. The retinasphaltum, a combination of bitumen and earth, having a yellow colour, burns with a bright flame, and fragrant odour, which at last becomes bituminous. Many stones, and particularly some of the black marbles, owe their colour to bitumen; hence they burn white. The bituminous schistus, or bituminous shale, sometimes contains so much of[156] this substance as to burn in the fire. Jet is a mineral of a black colour, and resembles the cannel coal. It is inflammable, producing a green flame, with a strong bituminous odour.

With respect to bitumens, we may observe, that they all possess one character, that of being inflammable; and that they are more or less so in proportion as they partake of the principle of naphtha; or, at least, the rapidity of their combustion depends upon the presence of this oil. The following additional facts, therefore, with respect to naphtha, may be interesting: Certain liquids have the property of uniting with naphtha, which has also the property of dissolving and combining with solid substances, of which the following examples may be stated:

At the degree of ebullition, it dissolves sulphur, which, on cooling, is in part deposited in needle-form crystals. At the same temperature, it also dissolves phosphorus, part of which is again separated.

It unites also with iodine. With camphor, it also combines, and in large quantity. It takes up a much larger proportion of pitch. In the cold, its action on wax is feeble, but assisted by heat, it unites with it in all proportions. On lac and copal, its action is feeble. In the cold, it does not dissolve caoutchouc; but when assisted by heat, it dissolves this substance, though not completely. These facts may determine its action in certain mixtures.

According to Theodore de Saussure's Analysis, (Bibliot. Universelle, iv, p. 116), it appears, that naphtha is composed of 87.60 carbon, and 12.78 hydrogen.

Sec. XIII. Of Oil of Spike.

This oil is principally used as a vehicle for mixing the ingredients of some kinds of fire-works; and, although it is employed in that way, yet it has also an effect in combustion, having similar properties with liquid bitumen. It enters into the composition of some of the preparations, and perhaps is equally good as liquid bitumen. Indeed, the oil of spike, as sold in the shops, and used principally by farriers as an embrocation for horses, is an artificial preparation, made by mixing together about five ounces of Barbadoes tar, with a pint of the spirit of turpentine.

Sec. XIV. Of Amber.

Amber, succinum, karabe, the electron of the ancients, which are synonimous terms, is very inflammable. A piece[157] of it, put on the point of a knife, and set on fire, will burn entirely away, emitting, at the same time, a white smoke, and a somewhat agreeable odour. It is used in the composition of fire-works, and particularly in some kinds of rockets. All the preparation it undergoes, when thus used, is to reduce it to powder in a mortar, and to pass it through a fine sieve. It also forms a part of the composition of odoriferous fire; but the formulæ for the latter are various.

Amber is of various colours, either yellowish, white, or honey-yellow. It is translucent, and sometimes transparent. It may be turned or polished. It occurs in grains or in irregular masses. Alluvial deposites of sand, gravel, &c. frequently contain it. It is also found with bituminous wood, brittle lignite, or jet, and with other substances. It has been discovered in New-Jersey, near Trenton, in alluvial soil. Naturalists believe, that amber was once a resinous juice. Masses weighing 20 lbs. have been found. Sometimes it contains insects. It is formed into beads and the like. As amber becomes electric by friction, and the ancients called it electron, the term electricity is derived from it. By distillation, it yields both an acid, (the succinic), and an oil. Jet is usually considered black amber.

We may introduce here a few remarks respecting ambergris:

Ambergris is a substance, which has a peculiar fragrance, and for that reason is used as a perfume, and may be employed like similar substances in odoriferous fire. As to its origin, we have no certain account; but it seems, from its general properties, to be formed in the same manner as bituminous substances, although it is mostly found on the sea-shore, where it has been probably washed up from the sea.

Ambergris is found principally on the shores of Ceylon, and is known to be good, by laying some of it on a very hot knife, when, if pure, it will not only melt and run like wax, but entirely evaporate, leaving no residue.

Ambergris, on account of its price, (the retail price in London being a guinea per ounce), is frequently adulterated with various mixtures of benzoin, labdanum, meal, &c. scented with musk. But pure ambergris, when heated, has a greasy feel, and appearance, and is soluble in hot ether and alcohol.

Sec. XV. Of Camphor.

Camphor is a resinous substance, although generally called a gum, which has a peculiar, and powerful smell. It is ob[158]tained principally from the Laurus Camphora. It is extracted from this, and other trees in the East Indies. We are informed, that, in Borneo and Sumatra, the larger pieces which contain the most camphor, are picked out with sharp instruments. The Chinese cut off the branches, chop them small, and place them in spring water. They are then boiled, and stirred with a stick. As soon as the camphor is observed to adhere to the stick, the fluid is strained. It is then poured into a basin, and the camphor separates, in Japan, the roots and the extremities of the branches are steamed. It is also obtained by sublimation. The roots, wood, and leaves are all boiled in large iron pots, and the camphor is collected on straw, placed in a tubular head.

With respect to the refining of crude camphor, in order to produce heads, as they are called, and to free it from impurities, the operation is nothing more than sublimation. Sublimers made of glass are used; and into each, the camphor, along with a small portion of lime, is introduced, and they are then placed in a sand bath. Heat is applied, and the pure camphor rises and attaches itself to the upper part of the vessel, forming the refined camphor.

The general properties of camphor are the following: It is not altered by the atmospheric air, but is volatilized during warm weather. It is insoluble in water; is soluble in alcohol, forming the spirit of camphor, and also in volatile and fixed oils. It is not acted upon by the alkalies. It is dissolved in acids without effervescence, and by some it is decomposed. Nitric acid converts it into a peculiar acid, called the camphoric. It melts between 300 and 400 degrees. It takes fire, and burns with a white flame, and, generally, while it presents the character of a resin, it shows, by its combustion, like other inflammable bodies, that it contains, in its composition, a large quantity of carbon and hydrogen.

There are several species of camphor, which have been examined by chemists and which differ in their properties. These are, common camphor, the camphor of volatile oils, and the artificial camphor, formed by treating oil of turpentine with muriatic acid.

The base of camphor forms a constituent part of some volatile oils, which are in a liquid state; and for its separation, it appears to require a combination with oxygen.

Camphor may be apparently set on fire by means of water, an experiment, which is nothing more than producing chemical action by it, in the following manner: Put a portion of nitrate of copper on some tin-foil, along with camphor; then by adding some water, and quickly wrapping the foil up,[159] pressing the edges close, it will inflame, and sparks of fire be produced.

Camphor has been used in the manufacture of candles. For this purpose, it is dissolved in brandy, and the wick, composed of equal parts of cotton and linen, is dipped in. It is then dried, and covered, in the usual manner, with tallow or wax. The tallow, recommended as the best for candles, is a combination of equal parts of mutton and beef suet.

Camphor is very soluble in acetic acid, which is highly inflammable. This solution is decomposed by water. When combined with essential oils, it forms aromatic vinegar. Romieu has observed that small pieces of camphor floating on water have a rotary motion.

Camphor enters into a composition, which is used to determine, like a barometer, the state of the weather, and the changes it undergoes. According to the Journal de Pharmacie, 1815, some experiments were made in France on the fluid taken out of one of the English weather gauges. The liquid contained water and alcohol, was strong with camphor, and reddened litmus paper. The tube contained 3¹/₂ ounces. On analysis, its contents were found to be, 24 grains of alum, 120 grains of camphor, and enough water to dissolve the former, and alcohol to dissolve the latter. A similar composition was made, and put into a tube, which, it seems, had the same effect. The tube is hermetically sealed. M. Cadet observes, that the prognosticator, made in Paris many years ago, was a similar preparation.

Although, according to Cadet, this contrivance cannot be depended upon, as the appearances it presents are not regular; yet, as the effect is produced by heat, as well as light and electricity, the following summary may be added:

1. In fair weather, the composition remains at the bottom, and the liquor is clear.

2. Before rain, it will rise a little; the liquor will be clear, having merely a star floating in it.

3. Before a storm, it will rise to the surface, the liquor will appear troubled. These appearances may be seen 24 hours before the change in the weather takes place.

4. In winter, it is higher than common. During a snow, it will be very white, and pieces are seen in motion.

5. In settled weather in summer, and when warm, the composition will be low.

6. To know from what quarter wind will come, the composition will remain attached on the opposite side of the bottle to that from which it is expected.

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Camphor has been burnt, like ether and alcohol, by platinum wire, previously heated. Dr. Ure observes, that a cylinder of camphor may be used for both wick and spirit, in the aphlogistic lamp; and the ignition is very bright, while an odoriferous vapour is exhaled. By adding various essential oils in small quantities to the alcohol of the lamp, various aromas may be made to perfume the air of an apartment. See Scented Fires for rooms.

Camphor is employed in those fire-works chiefly, which are exhibited in rooms; its expense being an objection to its use in large exhibitions. In what are termed perfumed pastes, or mixtures, scented fire, or odoriferous fire-works, it is used in abundance: in fact, it enters into nearly all the compositions of this kind. Camphor, besides producing, alone, a white flame, gives a brilliant light, and, when mixed with other substances, adds greatly to the appearance of the flame; and, giving out a powerful odour, destroys, in a measure, the disagreeable smell arising from the combustion of the sulphur and nitre.

By referring to the article on Greek fire, and some incendiary preparations used in war, it will be seen, that camphor is an important constituent. As camphor is very combustible, and will even burn on the surface of water, it is well adapted for all those purposes. We have already spoken of the Greek fire; and it seems, that the peculiar character of that fire, of burning in water, was owing to the presence of camphor. This opinion appears plausible, when we consider, that some preparations have been made with camphor, which had the property of burning on water.

Camphor may be pulverized by the assistance of, and brought into intimate mixture with, nitre and sulphur; because the former, in particular, tends to divide it. But it may be pulverized separately, and afterwards added to the composition, by rubbing it in a mortar with a small quantity of alcohol, or spirit of wine; or, if this cannot be had, with fourth proof brandy. As camphor is very inflammable, its effects, when mixed with saltpetre and fired, are much the same as those produced by other resins, or concrete oils. A combustion, more or less rapid, ensues, and, while the nitre itself is decomposed, the camphor also undergoes the same change, producing both water and carbonic acid, from the union of two of its elements, the hydrogen and carbon, with the oxygen of the nitric acid. In all cases, in which camphor is employed in artificial fire-works, although its own flame is white, it may assist in increasing the flame, which, however, is modified, according to the substances,[161] which enter into the composition. These may not retard its combustion, but, nevertheless, may change the appearance of the flame; as is the case, when we employ the filings of iron, steel, brass, or zinc, sal ammoniac, rosin, saw-dust, and other substances, which usually form a part of such mixtures. Upon the whole, then, we may consider, that camphor acts in fire-works; 1st, as an inflammable body; 2ndly, that, besides being in a great measure decomposed, a portion of it is evaporated, and communicates, to the surrounding atmosphere, a peculiar smell, which is recognised in the odoriferous fire-works; 3rdly, that, while it acts in taking a part of the oxygen from the nitric acid of the nitre, it assists in the decomposition of this salt, more especially if it be mixed separately with the nitre; 4thly, that, in all instances of its combustion, while it acts primarily on the nitre, with the oxygen of which it forms both water and carbonic acid, it, at the same time, increases the flame, which may be either white, red, or yellow, according to the other substances employed; and, finally, it may be thrown out in the state of combustion, and receive, for the further support of its combustion, the oxygen of the air, and hence produce a white exterior flame, while that in the immediate vicinity of the composition may be more or less coloured. But its application, the proportions in which it is used, as well as the kind of fire-works to which it is applicable, will be considered at large in other parts of the work.

The great inflammability of camphor is to be ascribed to its containing a large quantity of carbon and hydrogen, and a small quantity of oxygen.

There is a preparation, called artificial camphor, that is formed by passing muriatic acid gas through spirit of turpentine. It inflames with facility, and burns, without leaving any residue. Might not this preparation be economically employed, in lieu of camphor, for incendiary fire-works?

Sect. XVI. Of Gum Benzoin, and Benzoic acid.

Gum Benzoin, or Benjamin, is considered a solid balsam, and is the production of a tree, which grows in Sumatra, &c. called the styrax benzoe. It is obtained from this tree by incision, a tree yielding three or four pounds. It is a brittle substance, sometimes in the form of yellowish-white tears and called, from that circumstance, almond benzoin. Besides a resinous substance, it contains an acid, called the benzoic or flowers of benzoin, a substance similar to balsam of Peru,[162] being a peculiar aromatic principle, soluble in alcohol and water. By heating it, or by combustion, it evolves a very agreeable smell, and is, therefore, used in those fire-works which are exhibited in rooms, theatres, &c. and also in the composition of odoriferous fire-works. Besides being in itself inflammable, it produces a peculiar smell, arising, in all probability, from an essential oil, aided, in some degree, by the separation of benzoic acid.

It has been examined by Bucholz and Brande. Its general properties are: that it is insoluble in water, although hot water takes up a part of it, said to be the benzoic acid. It is soluble in alcohol, from which it is separated by muriatic and acetic acids, but not by the alkalies. It is also soluble in ether.

The benzoic acid, or flowers of benzoin, are obtained from it by sublimation. A quantity of the powdered gum, put into an earthen basin, a thick paper cone being tied round the rim, and heat applied, the acid will leave the resin, and be condensed on the inner side of the cone. Bucholz (Bulletin de Pharmacie, v. p. 177) has given a process for obtaining it by means of alcohol, and some others have been adopted. By boiling four ounces of the gum in powder in a sufficient quantity of water, with three drachms of carbonate of soda, the acid will unite with the alkali, and form a benzoate of soda, which, when filtered and decomposed by sulphuric acid, will yield the benzoic acid. Five drachms of acid will be thus obtained. Lime has been used in the same manner as soda, and the acid separated by the addition of muriatic acid.

Flowers of benzoin may be used in the place of the gum; using, however, but a small quantity. They will communicate the same odour to fire as the benzoin. The flowers, or acid of benzoin, are so inflammable, as to burn, with a clear yellow flame, without the assistance of a wick. It is soluble in ardent spirits, in oils, and in melted tallow. The compounds, which it forms with them, are also inflammable. Benzoic acid is considered to be an oily acid, and contains, no doubt, a very large proportion of hydrogen.

Sect. XVII. Of Storax Calamite.

Storax is the most fragrant of all the balsams. It is afforded by the styrax officinalis, a tree which grows in the Levant. It is sometimes in red tears. Common storax is in large cakes, and brittle and soft to the touch. This is[163] more fragrant than the other sort, but is frequently adulterated with saw-dust. It is soluble in alcohol, and is said to yield some benzoic acid.

Styrax is a different substance; a semi-liquid juice obtained from the liquidambar styraciflua. Its odour is less agreeable than that of storax calamite. It is used in odoriferous fire, in pastes, in the composition for scented vases, and the like.

Sect. XVIII. Of Essential Oils.

Essential or volatile oils, as well as the raspings of red cedar, dried rosemary, and other fragrant plants, are all used in the preparation of odoriferous fire. In some preparations, the oil of roses is employed; in others, the essence of bergamot, of lemon, &c. which, being very volatile, evaporate in a moderate heat, and, being also inflammable, may assist in the combustion. In the case of the raspings of cedar in particular, it also communicates a peculiar appearance to the flame.

Oils, whether essential or fixed, when passed through ignited tubes, are decomposed, and furnish an inflammable gas called olefiant gas. Wax, tallow, &c. produce the same gas, the hydroguret of carbon. Messrs. Taylor and Martineau contrived an ingenious apparatus for generating gas from oil on the great scale, as a substitute for candles, lamps, and coal gas, it being much preferable for burning, as it contains no sulphur, and does not injure furniture, books, plate, paint, &c. Oil gas contains more hydroguret of carbon than coal gas, which is a great advantage, enabling one cubic foot of oil gas to go as far as four of coal gas. An elegant apparatus was erected by Taylor and Martineau at the Apothecaries' Hall, London, a drawing of which may be seen in the 15th number of the "Journal of Science and the Arts."

It is to be observed, that odoriferous fire-works are intended for exhibition in close apartments; so that the smell of certain gases, produced by the nitre, charcoal, and sulphur, according to the preparation used, will be more or less destroyed. Such preparations are, nevertheless, expensive, and for that reason seldom used.

Sect. XIX. Of Mastich.

This resin, obtained, from the pistacia lentiscus, by making transverse incisions in the tree, is first in a fluid state, and gradually concretes into yellowish semi-transparent brittle[164] grains. In Turkey, great quantities of it are used for sweetening the breath, and strengthening the gums. It is from the use of the resin as a masticatory, that its name is said to be derived. It is not completely soluble in alcohol, a soft elastic substance separating from the solution. When exposed to heat, it melts, and exhales a fragrant odour: for which reason, principally, it enters into the composition of some fire-works, as the scented paste. In ordinary fumigations, mastich is commonly used.

Sect. XX. Of Copal.

Gum copal, by which name it is known, is a resin, obtained from a tree, called thus copallinum. It is often in the form of a beautiful white resin; but sometimes it is more or less coloured. It is frequently opaque. It may be dissolved in alcohol, spirit of turpentine, and oils, by a peculiar management, (by using camphor, previously melting it, and the like,) and then it forms the various copal varnishes, which are more or less perfect, as the copal is transparent, and the solution properly formed. When heated, it melts like other resins, and in this, and many other properties, it partakes of the character of resins in general. It is used in some of the formulæ for fire-works.

Sect. XXI. Of Myrrh.

Myrrh is obtained from a plant, supposed to belong to the genus mimosa, which, as Bruce informs us, (Travels, &c.) grows in Abyssinia and Arabia. It is in the form of tears, of a reddish-yellow colour; sometimes transparent, and at other times opaque. It possesses a peculiar odour, and a bitter and aromatic taste. It burns with difficulty, and does not melt when heated. With water, it forms a yellow opaque mixture. It dissolves in alcohol, and the solution is decomposed by the addition of water, the whole becoming opaque. According to Braconnot, myrrh is composed of 23 resin, and 77 gum, in the 100 parts. Pelletier, whose analysis differs from Braconnot's, observes, that, besides resin, it contains some volatile oil, to which, no doubt, its fragrance is owing. The gum, extracted from it, had the character common to all gums, with the exception, that, instead of forming the mucous or saclactic acid, by the action of nitric acid, it produced only oxalic acid.

That myrrh burns with difficulty, is owing entirely to the[165] presence of so much gum, and, comparatively speaking, the small quantity of resin, which enters into its composition. But, notwithstanding this property, as it partakes of a fragrant oil, it is used in some compositions for fire-works. The gummy part may retard, as is sometimes required in particular preparations, the rapidity of the combustion, and therefore have a two-fold effect when employed in fire-works.

Sect. XXII. Of Sugar.

Refined sugar is sometimes used in pyrotechno-mixtures. As it is a vegetable oxide, (composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen), which is decomposed by heat, and has the property of decomposing nitric acid, and some of its combinations; its operation in such mixtures may be readily perceived. We have seen, when treating of chlorate of potassa, that, when this salt and sugar are mixed together, and sulphuric acid poured on the mixture, a rapid combustion ensues, which is owing as well to the decomposition of the sugar, as to that of the salt. The matches, likewise, which inflame by immersion in sulphuric acid, are covered with a similar mixture. That sugar, therefore, has the property of decomposing those salts, which are composed of acids, that have their oxygen but feebly combined, and thereby producing combustion, according to the temperature employed, or other agents made use of, is evident from a variety of experiments. By its action, then, in such cases, the products of combustion, arising from the elementary parts of the sugar alone, uniting with oxygen, must be carbonic acid and water. Sugar, submitted to destructive distillation, affords a variety of new substances; among which we may notice caromel, or that peculiar odour, which is recognised in the burning of sugar. Sugar may, therefore, besides assisting in part in the decomposition of saline bodies, and particularly nitre, and perhaps giving rise to new products, with which we are unacquainted, have another effect, that of destroying the offensive smell of other substances, by means of the caromel formed. Sugar, also, when mixed with various bodies, and struck with a hammer, will produce detonations.

Sugar, when used in compositions of fire, should be pure; and it may be known to be so, by producing invariably a phosphorescence in the dark, when two pieces are rubbed together. At a red heat, it bursts into flame with a kind of explosion. This flame is white, with blue edges.

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Sugar is obtained from the sugar-cane; from the sap of the sugar-maple; from beets and grapes; and from various other saccharine bodies. It is formed also artificially, by the action of sulphuric acid on starch.

Mr. Kirchoff, a Russian chemist, accidentally discovered that starch may be changed into sugar by diluted sulphuric acid. One hundred parts of starch yield one hundred and ten of sugar. It appears, that, by the abstraction of a little hydrogen and carbon, starch will be converted into sugar. Potatoes, digested with diluted sulphuric acid, Dr. Ure found, would also form sugar, and very abundantly. The sulphuric acid may be removed by the addition of chalk, and, as the sulphate of lime is but slightly soluble, the pure saccharine fluid may be obtained by filtration. The sugar is procured in a solid state by evaporation, and may be clarified like other sugar. Dr. Ure observes, that good beer has been made from starch-sugar, but recommends potato-sugar. To obtain the latter, the potatoes are washed, grated down, and treated with the dilute acid for a day or two, at a temperature of 212°.

The observations of Braconnot are interesting. He has succeeded in converting a variety of vegetable substances into gum and sugar. The conversion of wood into sugar, however remarkable it may seem, has been effected; and a pound weight of rags will, by the same process, make more than a pound weight of sugar. Rice, as it contains a large quantity of fecula, may, we have no doubt, be converted, in the same manner, into saccharine matter.

When sugar is first obtained, it is impure, containing a variety of foreign substances, and more or less brown, as the Muscovado of the West India islands. It is refined, and formed into loaves, by treating its solution in water with bullocks' blood, the serum of which coagulates by heat; and, finally, by pouring the sugar, when sufficiently boiled, into conical earthen moulds, where it concretes. It is clayed, by putting a mixture of white clay and water on the sugar in each of the cones; the water from which passes through, and renders it beautifully white. The same process may be repeated; hence the single and double refined sugar. The molasses passes out from the sugar at the apex of the cone, and is received in vessels.

From twenty to thirty-five per cent. of molasses are separated in the refining of raw sugars; and it is supposed, that a considerable part of it, probably two-thirds, are formed by the high heat used in the concentration of the sirup. In order to prevent so great a quantity of molasses, different plans[167] have been recommended. That of Howard is highly spoken of. It consists in surrounding the sugar-boiler with oil or steam at a high temperature, instead of exposing it, as heretofore, or the mode usually adopted, to the naked fire. The boiler is covered at top, and, by means of an air-pump, the air is exhausted, and the pressure of the atmosphere being removed, ebullition takes place at a lower temperature. No blood is used in Mr. H.'s process, instead of which, the clarification is performed by means of canvass filters, adding previously a pasty mixture of gypsum and alumina, made by saturating a solution of alum with quicklime. He does not employ clay, as is done in whitening the sugar; but, in its place, makes use of very pure saturated sirup. He uses animal charcoal, (bone black), which has the property of destroying vegetable colouring matter. Wilson's process for refining sugar possesses some advantages. It will be found in the 34th volume of the Repertory of Arts. The patent filtering apparatus of Sutherland is highly approved.

The chemical properties of sugar are the following: It is very soluble in water, both hot and cold; it forms with water a sirup, which on standing will crystallize, forming the candied sugar. It is not acted upon by oxygen gas. It is capable of combining with, and, according to some chemists, of neutralizing acids and alkalies. It is decomposed by nitric acid with effervescence, being converted into oxalic and malic acids. Tartaric, acetic, and oxalic acids prevent it from crystallizing. It unites with lime and strontian, but is partially decomposed by barytes. It combines also with oxide of lead, which it precipitates from its solution, forming, as it is called, a saccharate of lead. Alcohol has some action on it, and also hydrosulphurets, sulphurets, and phosphurets of alkalies and alkaline earths. On the application of heat, it melts, swells, becomes brownish-black, and exhales a peculiar odour, which we have mentioned, and, at a red heat, takes fire. Lastly, though possessed of some general and specific characters, it differs, in some of its properties, according to the substance from which it is obtained.

Sect. XXIII. Of Sal Prunelle.

This salt is nothing more than nitrate of potassa, melted in a crucible, and poured into moulds, whence it receives the form under which it is found in the shops. The saltpetre, when merely fused, is not decomposed, as it is when exposed to a red heat in an iron retort. In the former case, the water[168] only which it contains is separated; but, in the latter, the salt itself is decomposed, and oxygen gas evolved. Sal prunelle, therefore, is fused saltpetre. Combustible bodies, as charcoal, sulphur, phosphorus, oils, resins, &c. have the same effect on it as on ordinary nitre. The only advantage it has over the common refined saltpetre, in the preparation of some fire-works, is, that it is free from water, and more readily acted on by combustible substances. In preparing it, care must be taken in the application of the heat; which, if too powerful, would, besides fusing it, decompose, and convert it into nitrite of potassa. It may be readily pulverized and sifted. For the properties of nitre, see that article.

Sect. XXIV. Of Alcohol.

Alcohol, or rectified spirit of wine, is used for a variety of purposes in pyrotechny, and, when it cannot be procured, strong brandy is substituted. In assisting the pulverization of some substances, as camphor, in forming the mixture of certain pastes, and in acting as a vehicle for the intimate union of some bodies, it is considered a necessary article. Alcohol may be made to form variously coloured flames, by mixing with it certain saline substances. Thus, boracic acid will form a green flame; muriate of strontian, a carmine red; muriate of lime, an orange; nitrate of copper, an emerald green; nitre, common salt, and corrosive sublimate, a yellow, &c. As alcohol has the property of dissolving essential oils, camphor, &c. it may be used as a menstruum for certain oils in the preparation of odoriferous fire-works. See Articles on coloured flame, and odoriferous fire.

Alcohol constitutes a part of all ardent spirits, wine, cider, beer, &c. in which it is combined with water, or with water and mucilaginous and colouring matter. It is formed in the vinous fermentation, and always results from the union of carbon and hydrogen. During the process, carbonic acid gas is liberated. Fermented liquors, therefore, or those which have passed through the vinous fermentation, always contain alcohol in more or less abundance, but mixed with water in many instances. In some it is accompanied with water, and saccharine, mucilaginous, and extractive matter. The different kinds of beer is an example of this fact. When liquors, which contain spirit, are submitted to distillation, the product is alcohol and water; for the volatile parts evaporate, and the fixed substances remain in the still. The spirit partakes, more or less, of a peculiar taste and flavour, by which[169] liquors are distinguished from each other. On this subject, however, it will be sufficient to add, that brandy is procured by the distillation of wine; rum, from the fermented juice of the sugar-cane; gin, from fermented grain and juniper-berry; whiskey, from the fermented mash of grain, cider, &c. and, generally, the ardent liquors, from pears, peaches, and other substances, by the same process.

Alcohol, therefore, exists in all these distilled liquors, in a greater or smaller quantity, combined with water; and the proportion it bears to the water is known by a standard, as either proof, above proof, or under proof, according as its strength is shown by the hydrometer.

The process of obtaining alcohol in a pure state, (usually called rectified spirit of wine), by which the water is separated from the alcohol, consists in repeated distillations, either alone, or mixed with certain substances, which have the property of uniting with, and keeping down the water, in the act of distillation. These substances are usually potash, and dry muriate of lime, both of which substances have a great affinity for water. The specific gravity of highly concentrated alcohol, at 60° is .820, but that of common alcohol, only .837, at the same temperature.

The properties of alcohol are the following: It is a transparent liquor of an agreeable flavour, and may be changed in this particular, by essential oils. It may be exposed to a low temperature without freezing. It boils at 106°, when of the specific gravity .820, and in a vacuum at 56°. It has a strong affinity for water, with which it combines in any proportion; and the specific gravity varies according to the proportion of the mixture and the temperature, on which are founded the tables of Blagden, Gilpin, and others.

Neither common air, nor oxygen, has any action on alcohol at moderate temperatures, whether in a liquid or aeriform state. On hydrogen, carbon, and charcoal, it has little or no action, but on phosphorus it acts, a portion of which it dissolves. With sulphur, it may be made to unite, as also with the alkalies, but not with the earths, except strontian and barytes. It is decomposed by sulphuric and nitric acids, with both of which it forms ether. It dissolves some salts, and has scarcely any effect upon others. Lastly, it dissolves resins and essential oils; but it neither acts upon gums, properly so called, nor on fixed oils. It is a compound of hydrogen, carbon, and a small proportion of oxygen, and may be decomposed, by passing its vapour through an ignited porcelain tube.

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Alcohol, by its combustion, as it is used in spirit-lamps for chemical and other purposes, produces no smoke, in consequence of the carbon it contains being totally converted, during that process, into carbonic acid; and its hydrogen, uniting with another portion of the oxygen of the atmospheric air, passes off in the form of aqueous vapour. Alcohol, used in this way, is preferable to oil; for the latter produces a large quantity of smoke, unless it is burnt in the Argand lamp. Alcohol is inflamed, when it is brought in contact with an ignited body. The combustion is rapid without any residue, and the flame white.

As to the strength of alcohol, the best means of determining it, is with the hydrometer; but usually its proof is ascertained by means of gunpowder. A portion of powder, put into a cup, and alcohol poured on it and inflamed, will, if the latter be strong, be set on fire; if, however, the powder should not take fire, but the flame of the alcohol be extinguished, we infer the existence of water, and that the alcohol is not of the proper strength. This experiment is founded on this circumstance, that, if the alcohol contains water, after the alcoholic portion is all consumed, the water will not only extinguish the flame, but also prevent the inflammation of the powder. The hydrometer, however, is the best experiment, as it determines at once the fact of the strength of the liquor.

Alcohol is used in the preparation of certain fulminating substances, as fulminating mercury and silver in particular; the preparation of which, we will give in the two next sections.

It may not be improper to mention another application of alcohol, that of forming the aphlogistic lamp, or lamp that burns without flame. The following description of it, is given by Accum, in his Chemical Amusements, Am. Ed. p. 355. "In a common lamp, with a wick of about half a dozen common threads of cotton wick, used for lamps, put some good spirit of wine. Dispose the threads of wick, not intertwined, but straight and parallel to each other. Take platina wire of the thickness of ¹/₁₀₀th part of an inch; coil it round the wick, about nine coils below, and six coils standing above the top of the wick; the diameter or width of the coils should not be more than ³/₂₀th, or ¹/₇th of an inch wide. Light the wick; and, when the coil of platina above the wick is red-hot, blow out the flame. There will then be a current of pure alcohol, gradually rising from the reservoir below, through the wick, sufficient to keep the upper coil of platina red-hot, until the whole of the alcohol is consumed. This lamp has[171] kept constantly lighted during sixty hours. By means of it, a match, a bit of spunk, or candle may be lighted when wanted. The quantity of alcohol consumed is not much: about an ounce, or an ounce and a half during the night, from bed-time until morning will suffice." This article was added to Accum by Dr. Cooper. A figure of the lamp is in Brande's Chemistry. Dr. Comstock has a paper on the aphlogistic or flameless lamp, in Vol. IV. p. 328, of Silliman's Journal of Science and Arts, which contains some judicious and useful remarks. Sir H. Davy (Journal of the Royal Institution) has discovered, that the vapour of camphor answers the same purpose as alcohol. If a platinum wire be heated and laid upon camphor, it will continue to glow as long as any remains, and the wire will frequently light it up into flame. Davy found, that, in the slow combustion of alcohol, &c. an acid was generated, to which he gave the name of Lampic acid. Faraday and Daniel (Journal of Science and the Arts) have confirmed his conclusions.

Dr. Marcet has proposed a method of producing an intense heat, by causing a current of oxygen gas to pass through the flame of alcohol. The construction of the lamp and gas-holder may be found in the Archives des Découvertes, Vol. vii, p. 61.

Sect. XXV. Of Fulminating Mercury.

As the fulminating mercury of Howard consists principally of the oxalate of mercury, the oxalate of this metal may be employed for the same purpose. Oxalic acid does not act on mercury, but dissolves its oxide, and forms with it a white powder. I formed various fulminating metallic powders, (See Coxe's Medical Museum), and prepared one in particular by merely digesting a solution of the salt of sorrel (superoxalate of potassa) on red precipitate. The effect is that the oxalic acid unites with the oxide of mercury, and forms an oxalate of mercury, which, when struck with a hammer, produces a detonation. Oxalate of mercury, possessing the same effects, may be formed, very expeditiously, by pouring the oxalate, or the superoxalate of potassa into a solution of nitrate of mercury. The oxalate of mercury will be precipitated, which is to be caught on a filter, washed, and dried in a gentle heat.

Howard's fulminating mercury is less dangerous than either fulminating silver, or fulminating gold. The extreme force of detonation which it possesses is remarkable. The tem[172]perature required for its explosion is 360 degrees. Friction, percussion, electricity, and the flint and steel will produce this effect. It gives rise to a stunning disagreeable report, and its force is sufficient to indent both the hammer and the anvil. Four or six grains are sufficient for an experiment. It is rather singular, as Mr. Cruikshank first observed, that this powder will not inflame gunpowder; as may be shown by spreading some of the former on paper, and shaking gunpowder over it, and then firing the mercurial powder. The grains of the gunpowder may be collected entire after the explosion.

From the experiments of Howard, it appears, that this powder is composed of oxalate of mercury, and nitrous etherised gas. Fourcroy, however, has shown, that it varies in its nature, according to the mode of its preparation.

There is also a preparation of mercury, which is likewise explosive, discovered by Fourcroy. This compound may be formed by digesting the red oxide of mercury in liquid ammonia for the space of eight or ten days. The oxide assumes a white colour, and at last appears in crystalline scales. Upon ignited coals, it detonates loudly like fulminating gold, which see below. In a few days, however, it loses its fulminating property, and undergoes spontaneous decomposition. Exposed to a low heat, the ammonia is disengaged, and an oxide of mercury remains.

As ammonia forms several detonating compounds with metallic oxides, the theory of their explosive effects is the same; viz. that, while the hydrogen of the ammonia unites with the oxygen of the oxide, forming water, the azote is disengaged in the state of gas.

The process for preparing Howard's fulminating mercury is the following, dissolve one hundred grains of mercury in an ounce and a half (by measure) of common nitric acid, assisting the solution by heat. When cold, pour the solution upon two ounces (by measure) of strong alcohol, and apply a moderate heat, until the mixture begins to effervesce. A white fume then begins to undulate on the surface of the liquor, and a white powder precipitates, which is the fulminating mercury. This powder is to be immediately washed with cold water, and dried at a heat, not much exceeding that of boiling water. One hundred grains of mercury, will give, on an average, one hundred and twenty-five grains of the powder.

The products of its combustion are carbonic acid gas, azotic gas, water, and mercury. Besides by percussion, it is inflammable when brought in contact with sulphuric acid. It[173] is supposed, that fulminating mercury sometimes contains ammonia, and that the products of combustion, according to the mode of preparation, are therefore different. The reader may consult some interesting observations on this powder in the Journal de l'Ecole Polytechnique.

M. Bayen, an apothecary, in 1779, (Journal de Physique), announced a process for preparing fulminating mercury. His process, however, is different from that described. A solution of mercury is made in nitric acid, and precipitated by caustic alkali. The precipitate (oxide of mercury) is then caught on a filter, washed, and dried. Thirty grains of this powder, mixed with four or five grains of sulphur, and struck with a heavy hammer, or heated on an iron, will explode with violence. The oxide of mercury, obtained from its solution by lime-water, has the same effect, when treated in the same manner. Another process recommended is, to precipitate a solution of the perchloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) by lime-water, and treat the precipitate with sulphur, as above described.

Sect. XXVI. Of Fulminating Silver.

This compound, which is more powerful than fulminating mercury, is prepared also with alcohol. Descostils (Annales de Chimie, LXII. p. 198,) Cruikshank, and Brugnatelli, have all written upon it.

Fulminating silver explodes without much heat. By the slightest friction it is inflamed, and detonation follows. Hence it is used in the form of toys, in fulminating balls, bombs, crackers, &c. which explode by falling on the ground. Torpedoes, pulling crackers, &c. are formed of this powder. The fulminating balls are made of glass, and contain a grain or two of fulminating silver, mixed with sand. The same mixture, put on the ends of two strips of paper, and the ends pasted, forms the pulling crackers; for the moment they are pulled asunder, the friction produced sets the fulminating silver on fire, and causes a detonation.

The same preparation placed on a wafer, and the wafer put between paper, as in the sealing of a letter, will explode, when the paper or the wafer is broken. Fulminating bombs are balls of the size of a hazle nut, containing about three grains of the fulminating silver. Their explosive effects are said to be violent. See Detonating Works.

This powder, in consequence of its powerful action, is dangerous; and, as it explodes so readily, it should never be put[174] into a phial, nor should it be touched or handled in any way that can produce friction. Even when made to approach the flame of a candle, it will explode with extreme violence.

The preparation of Brugnatelli's fulminating silver consists in reducing 100 grains of nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) to powder; and, when put into a basin, pouring over it one ounce of alcohol, and the same quantity of nitric acid. The mixture will become hot, effervescence will ensue, while the whole will assume an opaque or milky appearance.

When the gray powder of the nitrate has become white, and the mixture acquires consistency, distilled water is to be added, to suspend the action. The white precipitate is then to be washed by repeated affusions of cold water, and dried in the open air, but in a dark place, so as to seclude it from the light.

In fact, this process is similar to that for preparing fulminating mercury; for it is nothing more than treating silver with nitric acid and alcohol. Cruikshank employs forty parts of silver, sixty parts of nitric acid, and sixty parts of alcohol, from which sixty parts of the powder are obtained.

Berthollet considers this powder to be composed of ammonia, and oxide of silver, and the theory of its detonation to be the same as that of fulminating gold. In its explosion, the oxygen of the oxide of silver unites with the hydrogen of the ammonia, and the nitrogen is disengaged.

Berthollet's fulminating silver, which he discovered in 1788, is another preparation, which fulminates powerfully. It is prepared by precipitating nitrate of silver by lime-water. The precipitate is placed on filtering paper, which absorbs the water, and the nitrate of lime. Pure caustic ammonia is then added, which produces an effect somewhat similar to that attending the slaking of lime. The ammonia dissolves only a part of this precipitate. It is left at rest for ten or twelve hours, and at the expiration of this time, there is formed, on the surface, a shining pellicle, which is re-dissolved with a new portion of ammonia, but which does not appear, if a sufficient quantity of ammonia has been added at the first. The liquid is then separated, and the black precipitate, found at the bottom, is put, in small quantities, on separate papers. This powder explodes even when moist, if struck with a hard body. When dry, the slightest friction will explode it. Its detonation is owing to the same cause as that producing the explosion of the other preparation of this metal, as it is also composed of oxide of silver and ammonia.

The fulminating silver of Chenevix explodes only by[175] a slight friction in contact with combustible substances. It is nothing more than chlorate of silver. It is formed by passing chlorine gas through alumina, diffused in water, and afterwards digesting, in the liquor, some phosphate of silver. The whole is to be evaporated slowly. A single grain of this powder, with three grains of sulphur, will explode by the slightest friction.

For the preparation of fulminating silver, the formula given by professor Silliman of Yale College, appears to possess some advantages. To an ounce of alcohol and as much nitric acid, he adds 100 grains of pulverized lunar caustic. A gentle heat is applied to excite the action between them, which must be removed, the moment they begin to act. When a thick white precipitate appears, cold water must be added to check the action. The precipitate is then to be collected, washed, and carefully dried. A grain or two will explode over a candle.

Sect. XXVII. Of Fulminating Gold.

The preparation, called by some aurate of ammonia, is formed by dissolving gold in nitromuriatic acid, diluting the solution with water, and adding gradually liquid ammonia, until the precipitation ceases. The precipitate is then to be caught on a filter, well washed with water, and dried in the air. The fulminating gold, thus produced, exceeds the weight of the original gold employed by thirty-three per cent.

Three or four grains of this powder, heated on a knife, will explode with a loud report. The temperature required for its explosion is between 230° and 300°. Ten or twelve grains will penetrate a copper-plate, of the thickness of a playing card. The facility with which this powder explodes, is increased by drying. If it be heated until it becomes black, the slightest touch will cause a detonation. This powder is composed of oxide of gold, ammonia, and a portion of chlorine; and, during its detonation, water, nitrogen and chlorine are evolved, the gold being revived.

The presence of ammonia is necessary to give to gold the property of fulminating. Fulminating gold accordingly loses this property, the moment the ammonia is separated. Concentrated sulphuric acid, melted sulphur, fat oils, and ether have this effect.

The discoverer of fulminating gold was a German Benedictine Monk, who lived about the year 1413. Basil Valentine has described the preparation of it very accurately. He re[176]commends, however, mixing sal ammoniac with aqua fortis, the old mode of making aqua regia, and distilling the mixture; then putting in the gold in leaf. After the acid is saturated, he adds oleum tartari, or sal tartari (carbonate of potassa) dissolved in water; and the precipitated calx, thus obtained, when collected, washed, and dried in the open air, will fulminate. In this process, it is evident, that the aqua regia, prepared with sal ammoniac, contains ammonia, and, when the gold is dissolved, and the potash added, the oxide of gold separates, and, from the composition of the powder, must combine with a portion of ammonia, and hence produce fulminating gold. He remarks, that distilled vinegar digested on fulminating gold, destroys its fulminating properties, and observes also, that care must be taken to prevent its explosion. He also knew that sulphur would have the same effect.

Bergman (Treatise on Pulvis Fulminans) describes the process employed by Valentine; and Beckman (History of Inventions, v. iii. p. 132,) observes, that, after the time of Valentine, Crollius, who lived in the last half of the 16th century, was well acquainted with fulminating gold, and made its preparation more generally known. In the Oswaldi Crollii Basilica Chymica, 4to, p. 211, published at Frankfort, in 1609, the process is also to be found. He calls it aurum volatile, and speaks of its being useful in medicine. Beguin, however, appears to have given it the appellation of aurum fulminans, if we judge from his Tyrocinium Chymicum, 12mo, printed in 1608.

Sect. XXVIII. Of Fulminating Platinum.

While noticing explosive compounds, it may not be improper to mention that of platinum, lately discovered by Mr. E. Davy. It explodes, when heated to 400 degrees, with a sharp report, similar to that produced by fulminating gold; but neither friction nor percussion will decompose it. It is formed by making a solution of platinum in nitromuriatic acid, and passing through it, sulphuretted hydrogen gas, until no further precipitation ensues. This precipitate, when collected, and digested in nitric acid, is converted into sulphate of platinum. This is dissolved in water, and liquid ammonia then added. The precipitate, now formed, is washed, and boiled in a solution of potassa, and, after having freed it from the adhering potassa, is suffered to dry. All fulminating ammoniacal compounds are analogous; and fulminating[177] platinum, being composed of oxide of platinum, ammonia, and water, is decomposed in the same manner as these compounds.

Fulminating platinum is composed as follows:

Sect. XXIX. Of Detonating Powder from Indigo.

That indigo produces a detonating powder by treating it with nitric acid, is evident from experiment. As it produces a purple light, it might, perhaps, be used advantageously in small fire-works.

The process described by Dr. Thomson, (System of Chemistry, VOL. IV. p. 80, Amer. edit.) is to boil one part of indigo in four parts of nitric acid. The solution will become yellow, and a resinous matter appear upon its surface. The boiling is to be stopt, and the liquor cooled. The resinous matter is then to be separated; and the solution evaporated to the consistence of honey. This is to be re-dissolved in hot water, and filtered, and a solution of potassa added, which will throw down yellow spicular crystals, consisting of bitter principle, combined with potassa. When the resin is again treated with nitric acid, the same bitter principle is produced. The spicular crystals, when wrapped up in paper, and struck with a hammer, detonate with a purple light.

Sect. XXX. Of the Fulminating Compound, called Iodide of Azote.

Iodine is a particular substance, which has the property not only of combining with oxygen and hydrogen, forming iodic and hydriodic acid, but also with various bases constituting a class of bodies, called iodides. Its union with azote produces a singular substance, which detonates with great violence, when slightly touched or heated. It may be formed, by putting a quantity of iodine into the water of ammonia. It will be gradually converted into a brownish-black matter, which is the iodide of azote. It is formed in this process by the iodine, in the first instance, decomposing a part of the ammonia; the hydrogen of which combines with a portion of the iodine, and produces hydriodic acid, which then unites with the undecomposed part of the ammonia, and forms the[178] hydriodate of ammonia; whilst the azote the other constituent of the ammonia, unites with another portion of the iodine, and forms the compound in question.

When exposed to the air, iodide of azote gradually flies off in vapour, without leaving any residue. The products of its detonation are iodine and azotic gas.

The iodide of azote was discovered by M. Courtois, and subsequently examined by M. Colin. Iodine, brought in contact with ammoniacal gas, a combination taking place, produces a viscid shining liquid of a brownish-black colour, which, as the saturation goes on, loses its lustre.

This liquid does not detonate, and is considered to be an iodide of ammonia; but, when it is added to water, it is decomposed, as well as the water, and we obtain two new compounds, as before observed, the hydriodate of ammonia, and iodide of azote. This iodide detonates. Hence it is evident, that hydrogen united with azote, in ammonia, prevents explosion; for the moment it is taken away, by the formation of hydriodic acid, and the azote itself combines with the iodine, a fulminating compound is formed. The elements of this powder are feebly united.

It is found, that hydriodate of ammonia has the property of dissolving a large quantity of iodine, and, if suffered to remain with the iodide of azote, of decomposing it also, and setting the azote at liberty. Water is said to have the same effect, although feebly.

Iodate of potassa, a salt composed of iodic acid and potassa, when mixed with sulphur, and struck with a hammer, will detonate, in consequence of the decomposition of the iodic acid. The iodate of potassa may be formed very readily by agitating iodine with a solution of caustic potassa. The water is decomposed, and the hydriodate of potassa is also formed, which, being very soluble, remains in solution, whilst the iodate separates, on concentrating the liquor, and suffering it to stand.

Chlorate, as well as nitrate of silver, form with sulphur fulminating powders.

Iodic acid, called also oxy-iodine, (prepared by exposing iodine to the action of euchlorine,) when heated in contact with inflammable substances, and the more combustible metals, will produce detonations.

It appears, however, that sulphur has a stronger affinity for oxygen than iodine has, and iodine a stronger affinity than chlorine for the same element. Hence chloric acid is more[179] readily decomposed by inflammable bodies than iodic acid, and iodic acid, sooner than sulphuric acid.

The acids, which chlorine, iodine, and sulphur form respectively with oxygen, Gay-Lussac remarks, have their elements more strongly condensed, than the same substances united with hydrogen.

Sect. XXXI. Of Detonating Oil, or Chloride of Azote.

This oil is produced by the action of chlorine on ammonia, by using some of the salts of this alkali. A small jar of chlorine gas is transferred into a basin, containing a solution of nitrate or muriate of ammonia, a little heated: an absorption will gradually take place, and the gas be condensed. An oily film will now appear on the surface of the ammoniacal solution, which, as it increases, will form globules and fall through the liquor. This substance is the detonating oil, composed, according to analysis, of chlorine, azote, and hydrogen. It is supposed by Messrs. Wilson, Porret, and Kirk, that the hydrogen serves as a medium of union between the chlorine and azote, and that, in detonation, the powerful effect is owing to the chlorine.

Detonating oil explodes violently at 212 degrees; and even when touched with cold inflammable substances, as a portion of olive oil, about the size of a pin's head, the detonation is also violent, and the vessel, in which the experiment is made, will, in most cases, be broken into fragments.

Detonating oil is considered, however, a chloride of azote. In order to prevent the decomposition of the chloride by the ammoniacal salt, a thin stratum of muriate of soda, put into the bottom of the vessel, is recommended. Its specific gravity is 1.653. Warm water, put into a vessel containing it, will change it to an aeriform fluid of an orange colour. "I attempted," says Sir H. Davy, "to collect the products of the new substances, by applying the heat of a spirit-lamp to a globule of it, confined in a curved glass tube over water: a little gas was at first extricated; but, long before the water had attained the temperature of ebullition, a violent flash of light was perceived, with a sharp report; the tube and glass were broken into small fragments, and I received a severe wound in the transparent cornea of the eye, which has produced a considerable inflammation of the eye, and obliges me to make this communication by an amanuensis. This experiment proves what extreme caution is necessary in operating on this substance; for the quantity I used was scarcely as large as a grain of mustard seed." Phil. Trans. 1813, Part I.

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In vacuo, it expands into vapour, which still possesses the power of exploding by heat. In water, it gradually disappears, the water becoming acid, and azote being evolved. Mercury decomposes it, and a white powder (calomel) is formed, while the azote is set at liberty.

Dr. Ure (Chemical Dictionary, Art. Nitrogen,) observes, that the mechanical force of this compound, seems superior to that of any other known substance, not even excepting the ammoniacal fulminating silver. The velocity of its action appears to be likewise greater.

The Doctor touched a minute globule of it, in a platina spoon, resting on a table, with a fragment of phosphorus at the point of a pen-knife, and the blade was instantly shivered into fragments by the explosion.

Messrs. Porret, Wilson, and Kirk (Nicholson's Journal, Vol. XXXIV,) employed 125 different substances, by bringing them in contact; and out of that number the following caused it to explode:

See Detonating Works.

According to Mr. Davy, chloride of azote contains

Sect. XXXII. Of Pyrophorus.

Pyrophorus is a black substance, which takes fire spontaneously, when brought into contact with air. It is the luft-zunder, or air-tinder of the Germans. It first emits sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and in a few seconds becomes red-hot, burning with a bluish flame. Pyrophorus consists of[181] alumina, charcoal, and sulphuret of potassa, and also, according to some, of potassium, which is alleged to be formed in its preparation. Be this as it may, it seems, that water is decomposed in its combustion, that sulphuretted hydrogen gas is emitted, which is inflamed by the oxygen gas of the atmosphere, and that, during the combination of oxygen, a degree of heat is produced, which causes the ignition of the charcoal, as well as the inflammation of the remaining sulphur.

Pyrophorus may be formed in several ways, all of which produce the same result. The usual process is the following: Take equal parts of brown sugar and alum, and melt them in a ladle. Continue the heat, stirring them constantly until a spongy black mass is formed. Let this mass be reduced at once to powder, and introduced into a common green glass phial, of the capacity of about six ounces, previously coated outside with a mixture of pipe-clay and solution of borax. Immerse the phial in a crucible, filled with sand, closing the mouth of the former with a piece of charcoal, or a glass tube inserted in it. Upon the crucible being exposed to a red heat, an inflammable gas will escape, which will take fire.[21] When this effect ensues, the heat must be continued for about twenty minutes longer, at the expiration of which time, the crucible must be removed from the fire, and the phial taken out and closely stopt. The pyrophorus is to be preserved in a ground stoppered bottle. The addition of one-sixteenth part of sulphate of soda, or Glauber's salt, to the alum and sugar, is said to make the pyrophorus with more certainty. Various vegetable substances, besides sugar, as flour, starch, &c. may be used. Three parts of alum, and one part of wheat flour will make a good pyrophorus.

Homberg discovered this substance, in the year 1680. Hence it is sometimes called Homberg's pyrophorus. He was operating upon a mixture of human excrement and alum; and, when he examined the contents of his vessel, in three or four days after, he was surprised to see it take fire spontaneously, when brought to the air. Soon after Lemery, the younger, discovered, that honey, sugar, flour, or almost any animal or vegetable matter, could be used in lieu of human fæces; and, as Macquer informs us, M. Lejoy de Suvigny showed, that other salts, containing sulphuric acid, may be substituted for alum. Mr. Scheele (Treatise on fire, &c.) found by experiment, that, when alum was deprived of potassa,[182] it was incapable of forming pyrophorus, and that vitriolated tartar (sulphate of potassa) may be used in the place of alum. The experiments of Mr. Proust prove, that a number of neutral salts, composed of vegetable acids and earths, when submitted to heat, leave a residuum that inflames spontaneously. This statement agrees with the experiments of M. Chenevix. From the experiments and observations of sir H. Davy, and Dr. J. R. Coxe, late professor of chemistry, but now of materia medica, &c. in the University of Pennsylvania, it is rendered very probable, that pyrophorus owes its property of inflaming spontaneously to a small portion of potassium, which is formed in the process.

The preparation of pyrophorus is explained on the principle, that the vegetable matter is first decomposed; that the hydrogen and a part of the carbon decompose the sulphuric acid of the alum, by uniting with its oxygen; that water, carbonic oxide, and carburetted hydrogen are disengaged, along with a part of the sulphur; and that, while the excess of charcoal remains intimately mixed or divided with the alumina, the sulphur and the sulphuret of potassa, form together a compound, which has the property of inflaming spontaneously in the open air. Some suppose, as alum is a triple salt, having potassa, as well as alumina, for its base, that the potassa is decomposed in the process, and potassium, as we remarked, produced; to the presence of which they ascribe the singular property of inflaming in the open air.

The spontaneous combustion of charcoal, in several instances, is supposed by some to have been owing to the presence of pyrophorus, by others to phosphorus, and by others again to nascent hydrogen. To the presence of this substance, is attributed the explosion of gunpowder mills. (See Gunpowder.)

Several different mixtures, and torrefied substances, form a kind of imperfect pyrophori, and have more than once occasioned fires, from no suspicion of their properties being entertained.

Besides pyrophorus, other compositions, which, in like manner, take fire on exposure to the open air, have been by degrees made known to us: 1. The scoria of the martial regulus of antimony, or antimony freed from sulphur by the intervention of iron and nitre, as well crude as also after being dissolved, have been observed to take fire spontaneously, when laid upon a hot stone, or in the sun. Of the truth of the latter case, Wiegleb says, he is assured by his own experience. 2. The residuum of the acetate of copper is another[183] pyrophorus. 3. Some assert, that they have observed an inflammation ensue from honey and flour, calcined according to the rules laid down. 4. According to Geoffroy, a calcined mass of three parts of black soap, and one of diaphoretic antimony, has been known to take fire spontaneously. 5. Meuder has observed, that a pyrophorus is obtained, when equal parts of orpiment and iron-filings are sublimed together, and ten parts of this sublimate are triturated in a mortar along with twelve of nitrate of silver. 6. A pyrophorus is produced, according to Penzky, when two drachms of white sand, three of common salt, one of sulphur, two of sulphuric acid, and half an ounce of muriatic, are mixed together and distilled in a glass retort. In this operation, a sublimate is said to be obtained, which bursts out in flames, as soon as it comes into contact with the air. 7. The spontaneous precipitate of osteocolla, from a solution of it in sulphuric acid, after having been separated by means of a filter, and dried, took fire in a warm place. S. Pott observed the same phenomenon in the earth of the residuum, after the distillation of urine, that had been putrid for a considerable time. 9. To these may also be referred, a mass composed of equal parts of sulphur and iron-filings; which, when thoroughly moistened with water, after some time, grows hot, swells, and at last breaks out into vapour, smoke, and flame. (See Artificial Volcano.)

Cadet's fuming liquor, prepared by distilling equal parts of acetate of potassa, and arsenious acid, emits a very dense, heavy, fetid, noxious vapour, which inflames spontaneously in the open air. Black wadd, an ore of manganese, when dried by the fire, and mixed with linseed oil, gradually becomes hot, swells, and then bursts into flame.

M. Chenevix (Annales de Chimie, tom. LXIX,) remarks that almost all the metallic residuums, which are formed by the distillation of acetates per se, are pyrophoric, after cooling; which Mr. C. attributes to the presence of finely divided charcoal, mixed with the metallic part. He experimented on several acetates, with the view of ascertaining the quantity of pyroacetic spirit they would yield, and found, in every instance, that charcoal existed in the residue, sometimes with reduced metal, and at other times with metallic oxide. A table of these experiments may be seen in Ure's Chemical Dictionary. The residuum of acetate of copper has long been known to possess pyrophoric properties.

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Sect. XXXIII. Of Sal Ammoniac.

This salt enters into the composition of fire-works, to give, more particularly, a peculiar colour to flame, which is that of green, or yellowish-green. Sal ammoniac is a salt, composed of muriatic acid and ammonia, and, when pure, is white, and capable of being sublimed without decomposition. Its purity may be known by its complete volatilization. It is readily pulverized.

The experiment, showing the formation of sal ammoniac by a direct union of its component parts, may be made by bringing in contact, in a glass receiver, muriatic acid gas and ammoniacal gas. White clouds will form, a condensation take place, and muriate of ammonia be deposited on the sides of the vessel.

Sal ammoniac was altogether made, at one period, from the soot of camels' dung, or of other animals, which feed on saline plants. The excrement was burnt, the soot collected, and sublimed. This was the process practised in Egypt. The composition of sal ammoniac being known, the process for obtaining it was improved; so that, instead of using the soot of dung, it is now formed by the distillation of bones. The impure ammoniacal liquor, thus obtained, is combined with sulphuric acid, by an easy process, and the resulting sulphate of ammonia is then decomposed by muriate of soda, by which sulphate of soda and muriate of ammonia are produced. They are separated, and the latter is formed into heads by sublimation. In this state, it occurs in commerce. It was made in great quantity in the vicinity of the temple of Jupiter Ammon; and hence its name.

Mr. Minish, according to the English writers, is entitled to this method of converting impure liquid ammonia into sal ammoniac. The following is an outline of his process. He suffered the impure ammoniacal liquor to percolate through a stratum of bruised gypsum, and as carbonate of ammonia is contained in the liquor, the fluid, which filters, would contain sulphate of ammonia, the carbonate of lime being insoluble. This sulphate he evaporated, and the dry mass, mixed with muriate of soda, was sublimed. If I am not greatly mistaken, however, although I have not the work to refer to, this process is described in Dr. John Pennington's Chemical Essays, a work published in Philadelphia, about 1792. Dr. Pennington's work, we may observe, is the first chemical book which was published in the United States, and contains numerous important facts and observations. That this pro[185]cess was known in Philadelphia, and used at the Globe works, or rather Glaub works, (from the circumstance that Glauber's salt was made there,) is within the recollection of many. I heard the late professor Wistar speak of this process, and of the economy in using gypsum.

Mr. Lebanc (Annales de Chimie, vol. XIX.) invented a process, by which he brought the ammoniacal gas and muriatic acid gas in contact, in a chamber lined with lead. In one pot, he put common salt and oil of vitriol; in another pot, animal matter. Being conducted by pipes into the chamber, the gases united, and sal ammoniac was formed. Other improvements have been made, as obtaining ammonia from coal soot, &c.

Ammonia is generated in artificial nitre beds, and is at first united with nitric acid; which compound is subsequently decomposed, as the process of putrefaction goes on, by the potassa, calcareous earth, &c. present in nitre beds. See Nitrate of Potassa.

Sal ammoniac is ready formed in the soot of animal feces, twenty-six pounds of which yield six of the salt. According to Siccard, who published, in 1716, an account of the fabrication of sal ammoniac in Egypt, which Geoffroy, in the same year, proved to be a compound of the spirit of sea salt and volatile alkali, sea salt and urine were used in that country. The account, however, given by Lemery, in 1719, makes no mention of either sea salt or urine.

Sal ammoniac is found native. It occurs in the vicinity of burning beds of coal, both in Scotland and England, and is met with in volcanic countries. When triturated with quicklime, it exhales ammonia, which is a characteristic of all ammoniacal salts.

Sal ammoniac is often found in crusts of lava. Sir William Hamilton observes, that, in the fissures formed by the lava, this salt sublimes. He found, in the same locality, common salt.

Sal ammoniac is decomposed by a variety of substances. Sulphuric acid will disengage the muriatic acid from it, while lime, potassa, &c. liberates the ammoniacal gas, which, when combined with water by distillation or other means, forms the common spirit of sal ammoniac, or water of ammonia. Mixed with carbonate of lime and sublimed, it produces the carbonate of ammonia, usually called mild volatile alkali, or pungent smelling salts. Ammonia, in a separate state, unites with some metallic oxides, giving rise to certain fulminating powders, which have been already noticed. That iodine de[186]composes ammonia, we have shown, when on the preparation of iodide of azote, or fulminating powder.

Sal ammoniac enters into the composition of candles, to prolong their duration. The process recommended in the Archives des Découvertes is the following: Dissolve, in half a pint of water, a quarter of an ounce of sal ammoniac, two ounces of common salt, and half an ounce of saltpetre, and add the solution to three pounds of mutton tallow, and eight pounds of beef tallow, previously melted. Continue the heat until all the water is evaporated. It is then suffered to cool, and, when used, is to be melted with a quarter of an ounce of nitre, and formed into candles in the usual manner. This preparation of tallow is highly recommended on account of its economy, as well as the improvement itself. A candle, made of this tallow, will burn two hours longer than one of the ordinary kind.

Another process for making candles, in which sal ammoniac is used, is mentioned in the Annales des Arts et Manufactures, Nos. 142 and 146. Eight pounds of suet are melted, and a pint of water is added. The tallow is again submitted to heat, and the same quantity of water, holding in solution half an ounce of saltpetre, half an ounce of sal ammoniac, and one ounce of alum, is added. It is then suffered to stand, and when used is re-melted. The wick is first dipped in a mixture of camphor and wax. Care must be taken, before the tallow is used, to evaporate the water. Equal parts of beef and mutton tallow are recommended.

Sect. XXXIV. Of Corrosive Sublimate.

Corrosive sublimate, known in chemistry by the names of corrosive muriate, and perchloride of mercury, is made use of in some preparations of fire-works, and particularly in the composition of stars, in which it is mixed with a variety of substances, such as steel filings and antimony, in order to vary the appearance of the flame, and to communicate to it particular colours. Corrosive sublimate is formed by various processes, among which we may enumerate the following: Take five parts of sulphuric acid, four parts of mercury, four parts of muriate of soda, and one part of black oxide of manganese. Boil the mercury in the sulphuric acid, until it forms a dry sulphate, which is to be reduced to five parts. Mix the sulphate thus formed, with the muriate of soda, previously dried, and the oxide of manganese, and sublime the mixture. By this process the sulphuric acid of the sulphate unites with[187] the soda, and forms sulphate of soda; while the muriatic acid of the muriate of soda combines with the oxide of mercury, (which receives an addition of oxygen from the oxide of manganese,) and forms the perchloride, called by Thenard the deutochloride of mercury. The same process is used without the addition of manganese. By exposure to heat, the sublimate sublimes, and the sulphate of soda forms the residuum. The same salt, if re-sublimed with an addition of crude mercury, will be changed into the protochloride of mercury, or calomel. Or, if the sulphate of mercury and muriate of soda be mixed with crude mercury, and sublimed, calomel will be formed at one operation. It is sufficient to observe, that corrosive sublimate is one of the most virulent of poisons when swallowed; and therefore should be used with caution.

It is soluble in water, and capable of crystallizing. It is also soluble in alcohol, to the flame of which it communicates a yellow colour, and in sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids. It is decomposed by alkalies, forming with ammonia a triple salt, (Sal Alembroth,) by the alkaline earths, and the metals or their sulphurets; and, when distilled with arsenic, bismuth, antimony, or tin, the mercury is separated.

The proper antidote for corrosive sublimate, is the white of egg or albumen, which converts it into calomel. Sulphuretted hydrogen water may also be employed along with emetics. The effect of albumen, in this way, may be relied on.

Sect. XXXV. Of Orpiment.

Orpiment, or the yellow sulphuret of arsenic, which is either native or artificial, is principally used in fire-works for the composition of stars. Orpiment is divided by some into two kinds; viz. the red, called realgar, and the yellow, called yellow arsenic.

Arsenic combines readily with sulphur. When they are mixed together, and put into a crucible and fused, the product will be a red vitreous mass. This red sulphuret may also be formed, by melting sulphur with arsenious, or arsenic acid. Sulphurous acid gas will be evolved, evidently showing that a portion of the sulphur unites with the oxygen of acid employed.

When arsenious acid, known in commerce by the name of white arsenic, and called by some oxide of arsenic, is dissolved in muriatic acid, and a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen in water is added, a yellow precipitate will be obtained[188] which is orpiment. The hydrogen, in this case, unites with the oxygen of the arsenious acid, by which the metal is reduced, and the sulphur then combines with it. A mixture of sulphur and arsenic, exposed to a heat not sufficient to melt them, will sublime into a yellow sulphuret.

Both the yellow and red sulphurets are employed in fire-works. They are not, however, required, except in particular cases. In the composition of Bengal lights, given in the Bombardier or Pocket Gunner, by R. W. Adye, orpiment is used. According to the same author, it is also used in Chinese white lights. Both the yellow and red sulphuret of arsenic will detonate with chlorate of potassa.

Sect. XXXVI. Of Antimony.

The antimony, which enters into the composition of many fire-works, is not to be understood to be the metallic, or regulus of, antimony, unless so expressed; but the crude antimony of the shops. Crude antimony is a combination of antimony and sulphur, and is usually met with in fine powder. That both antimony and its sulphuret have a powerful effect in modifying the flame of gunpowder, and all compositions, in which nitre and inflammable substances form a part, is evident from the many cases, in which it is employed, and from the effects that thereby result.

The different substances in any inflammable compound, intended to produce particular colours, should be so mixed, as that, from a knowledge of the proportions which produce such colours, the effect may be retained, even when it is mixed with other bodies. For this reason, the artist should know the different effect of each ingredient. Some may show themselves in the flame, some in sparks, some in stars, others in fire-rain, and the like, as the case may be. Antimony, for instance, produces a reddish flame, if it be in a proper proportion, and not altered by the presence of other substances. Hence, when antimony is mixed with nitre, the flame will be more or less a whitish-green.

This modification, or change in the appearance of flame, is apparent in certain compounds, of which antimony constitutes a part. Thus, antimony is used in the preparation of the common rocket stars, in drove stars, in the fixed pointed stars, in some of the gold and silver rains, in the slow and dead fire for wheels, in tourbillons for crowns or globes, in the composition of serpents, lances for illumination, Bengal lights, and[189] many other kinds of fire-works. According to Adye, (Pocket Gunner,) it enters into the composition of carcasses, Chinese lights, &c.

When it is as one to sixteen of nitre, the gunpowder being as four, and the sulphur, eight, the composition will produce a white flame; but when it is in the proportion of eight to sixteen of nitre, without any addition, the flame will be blue. By substituting, in its place, eight of amber to sixteen of nitre, with sixteen of sulphur, and eight of meal powder, this change will produce a yellow flame. It is obvious, however, that these and similar changes are owing to the proportions, as well as to the substances used.

Antimony, in the state of a sulphuret, when mixed with chlorate of potassa, &c. will form detonating compounds.

Antimony is a grayish-white metal, more or less brilliant and laminated. It is brittle, and may be easily reduced to powder. It melts at a red heat, and evaporates at a higher temperature: on cooling, it crystallizes. It undergoes no change by exposure to the air, except the loss of its lustre. When steam is made to pass over ignited antimony, the decomposition of the water is so rapid, as to produce a violent detonation. At a white heat, it burns, and forms a white coloured oxide, called the argentine flowers of antimony. Its oxides are various, some of which, possessing acid properties, are called acids. The protoxide is gray, the antimonious acid, white, and antimonic acid, of a straw colour. The crocus of antimony, and the glass of antimony are oxides of this metal, but in particular states of combination. It unites with several of the acids. Its oxide, with tartaric acid, and tartrate of potassa, forms tartar emetic. With chlorine, it constitutes the butter of antimony.

The artificial sulphuret may be formed, by melting sulphur and antimony together. The native sulphuret is almost the only ore of antimony, and is the mineral from which the regulus is obtained. It unites with the metals, forming alloys of different kinds.

Sect. XXXVII. Of Carbonate of Potassa.

Potassa, either pure or carbonated, retards the progress of combustion; and, therefore, may prevent, according to the proportion employed, the action of combustible bodies on nitre. Combustion may be retarded by using those substances, which are not in themselves inflammable, and which, if used in too large a quantity, would effectually prevent it.[190] Clay, wood ashes, &c. as in the blind fuse, act on this principle; and serve, also, in particular cases, to produce that succession of explosions, which renders the effect of some fire-works, more grand and impressive. Rope, soaked in a solution of saltpetre and dried, would burn rapidly, were it not for the after immersion in potash ley, or urine, either of which acts by retarding the progress of combustion. The same thing may be said of other bodies, the use of which will claim our attention hereafter. Potassa, although not generally used for the purposes mentioned, as it is apt to deliquesce, or absorb water, and thus destroy the effect altogether, may be more advantageously employed in a liquid state, as in the preparation of slow match in the way stated under that head. But as match rope is now generally superseded by the port-fire, as a more certain method of firing cannon, it would be unnecessary, as it is irrelevant, to enlarge on this head. The use, also, of the priming fuse, which conveys the fire to the powder in the gun, with certainty and with rapidity, is an improvement of no small moment.

Alum has also been used for the purpose of checking the rapidity of combustion, in some particular fire-works. In one of the formulæ for the preparation of fire-balls, to be thrown with the hand, or fired from a gun, given in the Memoir on Military Fire-works, as taught at Strasburg, in 1764, there is, besides sulphur, mutton suet, saltpetre, and antimony, nitre of alum, equal to one-fourth of the weight of the compound. That this salt, the supersulphate of alumina and potassa, is used to make paper, as cartridge paper, &c. incombustible, is a fact, with which every one is acquainted.

We might, also, enumerate the uses of glue, isinglass, gum arabic, &c. for similar purposes; and also of wood-ashes, in the composition of the, so called, blind fuse. Light twisted white rope, when soaked in strong ley, or a strong solution of potash, we are informed, will form a slow match that will burn only three feet in six hours.

Potash is obtained from wood-ashes, by lixiviation with water, and evaporation. It contains more or less impurities; and always carbonic acid, from which it is separated by quicklime, the alkali being rendered caustic. Some of the foreign ingredients are burnt off by exposing it to heat in an oven. It then assumes a white, somewhat pearly appearance, and takes the name of pearl-ash, but is still the same alkali.

Wood-ashes, when mixed with quicklime, and lixiviated, produce caustic ley, the strength of which depends on the[191] quantity of alkali held in solution. It is this ley, when boiled with oils, fat, &c. that produces soft soap. Hard soap is a combination of oil or fat, and soda. The quantity of real alkali in potash may be known by the proportion of acid required to saturate a given weight of it. Potash, pearl-ash, salt of tartar, and salt of wormwood are all carbonates of potassa. This alkali is called the vegetable alkali, because it is obtained from vegetables. It is considered to be the hydrated deutoxide of potassium, and when decomposed will furnish potassium.

Table of the saline or soluble products of one thousand pounds of ashes of the following vegetables.

The observations of Mr. Kirwan on potash may be seen in Aikin's Chemical Dictionary.

When a piece of hydrated potassa is placed between two disks of platinum, which are brought in contact with the poles of a galvanic battery, consisting of upwards of 200 pairs of plates, four inches square, the oxygen will separate at the positive surface, and small metallic globules of potassium will be formed at the negative surface. The potassa, in the mean time, will undergo fusion.

Sir H. Davy discovered potassium, in 1807. It may be obtained by means of iron turnings, in the following manner: Heat the iron turnings to whiteness in a curved gun barrel, and suffer potassa, in a state of fusion, to fall upon them very gradually, air being excluded: potassium will form, and collect in the cool part of the tube. For the different facts respecting this metal, consult Sir H. Davy's communications[192] on the subject, and the memoirs of Gay-Lussac and Thenard, Curadeau, &c. See also, Davy's Chemical Philosophy, and Thenard's Traité de Chimie.

Potassa unites with, and neutralizes, acids, and forms salts; the principal of which are the sulphate, muriate, and nitrate of potassa. It unites also with sulphur, phosphorus, &c.

Potassa, in the state of carbonate, is very soluble in water, for which it has so strong an affinity, that, when exposed to the atmosphere, it deliquesces and becomes fluid. Caustic potassa undergoes the same change, in a more remarkable degree. It is on account of its great avidity for water, that the carbonate is used in the preparation of alcohol from spirituous liquors; it retaining the water, while the alcohol may be distilled over.

Potassa has a stronger affinity for the acids, than either the earths or metals; hence it decomposes earthy and metallic salts, the earth or metallic oxide being precipitated, while it unites with the acid of the salt. It is on the same principle, that earthy and metallic salts decompose soap; and waters which are hard, and owe that property to the presence of earthy salts, will curdle, or, in other words, decompose soap. Such waters, for this reason, are called hard. Acids have the same effect in decomposing soap.

The use of potassa is very apparent in the manufacture of saltpetre. When the nitric acid is combined with an earthy base, as in the calcareous nitre of the nitre caves of the western country, potassa from wood-ashes will decompose it, on the principle already stated; and, by combining with the nitric acid, form nitrate of potassa. It is used also in refining saltpetre, where earthy salts are present, besides common salt. The effect of this alkali, for that purpose, will be more obvious, by referring to the processes for the extraction and refining of saltpetre, in the article on that subject.

Potassa acts as a flux for siliceous substances and forms glass. These are its prominent characters.

Sect. XXXVIII. Of Wood-Ashes.

Wood-ashes, the product of the combustion of wood, contain potassa, some foreign salts, and earthy and sometimes metallic substances, insoluble in water. The quantity of alkali, which ashes, obtained from different woods, furnish, is greater or less, according to the nature of the wood. The ashes of the oak are generally used in pyrotechny; but it seems to us, that ashes in common will have the same effect.

[193]

The ashes, for this purpose, should be dry, and passed through a fine sieve. They enter into the composition of blind fuse.

In some instances, the leached, or lixiviated ashes might be used. The residue, after the separation of alkali and saline matter by the action of water, is nothing more than the insoluble part of the ashes. Caustic ley is always obtained from wood-ashes, by mixing them with about a fiftieth part of quicklime, and putting them into a barrel or tub, and adding water. The lime takes up the carbonic acid, and the ley comes off in a caustic state. If the solution should not contain a sufficient quantity of potassa, or not bear an egg, as that is the usual criterion of its strength, (which depends on its specific gravity,) its strength may be increased by evaporation; and, if too strong, simple dilution with water, is all that is necessary.

While the ashes of some plants, as the upland plants, generally yield potassa; others, as many marine plants, the salicornia europea, salsola tragus, salsola kali, &c. afford soda by incineration. It will be sufficient, however, to observe, that the ashes of all plants contain alkali, in more or less quantity, which depends on various circumstances; and that the alkali may be extracted by lixiviation, and, in some instances, may even be seen among the ashes, in a semivitrified mass. The white ashes, which are formed by the combustion of animal matter, as osseous or bony substances, we may remark, do not afford potassa or soda, but only phosphate of lime, and some uncombined earths. Bones, nevertheless, may, like wood, be carbonized, although the charcoal formed is of a different nature. For the preparation of phosphorus from bone-ash, see the article Phosphorus.

Sec. XXXIX. Of Clay.

Clay is an argillo-siliceous substance, of a colour more or less yellow, and containing a variable quantity of silica and alumina, with oxide of iron. There are a variety of clays; the common potter's clay, pipe clay, porcelain clay, &c. Some contain, and others are free from iron. Those that contain this metal burn red; while those which remain, or become white in the process of burning, are free from it.

The use of clay in fire-works is confined nearly altogether to rockets. In the driving of sky-rockets, &c. the charge must always be driven one diameter above the piercer, and on it there is sometimes rammed one-third of a diameter of[194] clay, through the middle of which a hole is bored to the composition, so that, when the charge is burnt to the top, it may communicate its fire through the hole, to the stars in the head. This, however, is not always the case. See Rockets.

The clay for fire-works, is usually prepared of the common kind, which contains neither stones nor sand. It must be first baked in an oven, until perfectly dry, and then pulverized, and sifted through a common hair sieve. In China, the Chinese mostly employ, for this purpose, their white porcelain clay.

Sec. XL. Of Quicklime.

Lime, as it is found in nature, is combined with carbonic and sulphuric acids, and less frequently with some of the other acids, as the nitric, fluoric and phosphoric. Calcareous carbonates are the most abundant; in which we include marble, limestone, and chalk; and the sulphate, or gypsum, may be considered the next. Lime constitutes the basis of marine shells; for, when burnt, they furnish quicklime. Its union with nitric acid is well known, forming the calcareous nitre of the saltpetre caves of Kentucky, &c. We have mentioned this combination under the head of nitre.

Without enumerating all the chemical properties of lime, it will be sufficient to remark, that it is composed of calcium and oxygen, and, when slaked with water, will evolve caloric in a free state, while the water solidifies or combines with the lime; that it forms with water, a solid hydrate, an example of which combination is afforded by the preparation of mortar; that it dissolves in water, and forms lime-water, and is slaked by exposure to the air, absorbing, at the same time, carbonic acid; that it unites with acids, like other salifiable bases, and forms salts, some of which are soluble in water, and others not; that it deprives the alkalies of carbonic acid, and renders them caustic, being itself changed into a carbonate; and, that it unites with sulphur and phosphorus, forming a sulphuret and phosphuret, and, also, with hydroguretted sulphur, and sulphuretted hydrogen, forming a hydroguretted sulphuret, and a hydro-sulphuret.

When limestone, marble, &c. are burnt in a kiln, the carbonic acid is expelled, and quicklime formed. Quicklime and lime, chemically speaking, are synonimous terms.

The fluor, or Derbyshire spar, is a fluate of lime. When this substance is distilled in a leaden retort, with sulphuric acid, we have sulphate of lime, and fluoric acid gas, called by some hydro-fluoric acid. This acid, when received in wa[195]ter, is used to etch on glass, in the same manner as nitric acid on copper; and while applied in a liquid state, or in that of gas, it acts on the glass, by combining with the silicon, and is changed from the hydrofluoric, into the silicated fluoric acid. If, instead of employing a leaden vessel, we make use of a glass retort, or introduce powdered glass or silica, into the leaden vessel, in either case, we obtain another acid, which we have just mentioned, the silicated fluoric acid; in consequence of the union of silicon with the supposed radical of the fluoric acid, known by the name of fluorine.

Quicklime is occasionally, though but rarely, employed in fire-works. That it increases the strength of powder, is asserted by Dr. Bayne. See Gunpowder. Its use in making slow match, along with other substances, is given in the article on that subject.

Sec. XLI. Of Lapis Calaminaris.

That some of the ores of zinc are employed in fire-works, is evident from the use of lapis calaminaris, or calamine stone, which is an impure carbonate of zinc. Calamine should be finely pulverized and sifted. As zinc gives a particular colour to flame, (see zinc), its carbonate may also communicate a colour, and, under particular circumstances, may produce a great variety, and, therefore, in such cases, be preferable to the zinc itself. It is one of the ingredients in the dead fire for wheels, which is composed of lapis calaminaris, saltpetre, brimstone, and antimony.

The modifications, to which particular bodies are subject, as to their respective effects, depend very greatly on the presence of other bodies, and frequently on the chemical action, which ensues throughout; so that, as we had occasion to observe, the effect which one body would produce on the flame, maybe completely changed, modified, or varied by the presence of a second, third, or fourth substance. The art, therefore, of uniting various bodies, in kind, as well as in proportion, so as to produce a given effect, can be acquired only by a series of experiments. Zinc, as a metal, when finely divided, produces a peculiar effect; when mixed with other metals, and with certain salts, as sal ammoniac, another; and, when combined with some acids, as the carbonic in lapis calaminaris, a third effect; and these effects may be governed, as it appears, by the presence or absence of certain bodies. This fact will appear more striking, when we consider the va[196]rious mixtures, and their respective properties. For the uses of zinc, see that article.

Sec. XLII. Of Zinc.

Zinc, commonly called spelter, is a metal, obtained from blende, or sulphuret of zinc, and calamine, or carbonate of zinc. The ore is first roasted, and then mixed with some carbonaceous flux, and submitted to the action of heat in close vessels. The metal is volatilized, and passes over, and is usually caught in water. It is then fused, and cast in moulds.

Zinc possesses many remarkable properties, some of which are the following. It is of a brilliant white colour, with a shade of blue, and is composed of a number of thin plates, adhering together. Its specific gravity is more than six times that of water. It is brittle, but, when heated to 212 degrees, may be hammered out, or made into sheets. At 400° it becomes very brittle. Its tenacity is so feeble, that a wire of ¹/₁₀th of an inch in diameter, will support a weight of only 26 pounds. At 680° it melts, and above that temperature, evaporates. It soon oxidizes, and its lustre is therefore tarnished. At common temperatures, it soon decomposes water; and, when the vapour of water is passed over it at a high temperature, the decomposition is very rapid, the oxygen of the water being absorbed. Zinc is soon oxidized when melted and exposed to the air, forming a gray oxide.

At a red heat, zinc inflames, and the product of combustion is the white oxide of zinc, or flowers. The oxide of zinc is reduced by mixing it with charcoal, and exposing the mixture to a strong heat in close vessels.

Zinc will burn in chlorine gas, and forms a chloride of zinc. If the perchloride of mercury and zinc-filings be heated together, the same compound will result. This chloride melts at 212°, and rises, in the gaseous form, at a heat much below ignition. It was formerly called the butter of zinc, and muriate of zinc. With iodine, zinc forms a compound, called iodide of zinc.

With phosphorus and sulphur, zinc also combines, and with the latter, it forms the native sulphuret, known by the name of blende. It unites, also, with acids, and forms salts. Of these, the sulphate of zinc, or white vitriol, is the most common. It unites with various metals, forming alloys. Of these, that with copper, called brass, is the most known. Zinc, with copper, forms galvanic batteries. With tin and mercury, it constitutes amalgam for electrical ma[197]chines. It forms, besides brass, the yellow copper, or laiton; commonly called pinchbeck.

Acetic acid readily dissolves zinc. The acetate formed is not altered by exposure to the air, is soluble in water, and burns with a blue flame. It may be used, therefore, in fire-works, to communicate that colour to flame. It may be formed very expeditiously, by mixing about equal parts of sulphate of zinc, and acetate of lead, both being in solution. The sulphate of lead, which is formed, will precipitate, and acetate of zinc remain in solution. By evaporation, it is obtained in crystals. This salt cannot injure any composition of fire-work, in which it enters; as it does not deliquesce, and, for that reason, may be advantageously employed.

When zinc is used in fire-works, it should be remarkably fine. The powder may be very readily formed, by heating it, until it is about to fuse, and pulverizing it while hot, in a warm mortar. It is generally considered, however, that the best method of obtaining the powder of zinc, although a longer time is required, is by filing it; but the filings are more or less coarse, according to the file which is used. They may be sifted, and thus obtained of any degree of fineness. In various blue lights, in the blue flame of the parasol and cascades, and other descriptions of fire-works, it is used. It gives a more brilliant light than any other substance used for this purpose. It is frequently mixed with other substances; but, as to its peculiar properties, they remain the same. By the combustion of zinc, which follows in fire-works, it always produces an oxide. In this state, it is expelled, or thrown off.

Acetate of zinc appears to possess advantages over zinc-filing, especially as it produces the same colour, may be more readily mixed, and with more accuracy, and does not deliquesce or absorb moisture, a circumstance which must always be guarded against in artificial fire-works.

Sec. XLIII. Of Brass.

This is a mixed metal, composed of copper and zinc. This alloy, according to the proportion of the metals, is more or less yellow, or reddish-yellow. The yellow copper, or laiton of the French, the similor, Manheim gold, prince Rupert's metal, &c. are alloys of the same metals.

Zinc readily unites with copper; and the usual manner of forming brass by brass-founders, is to make a direct union between the two metals. The process, however, generally consists in mixing together granulated copper, calamine, or[198] carbonated oxide of zinc, and charcoal in powder, and melting them in a crucible. The charcoal reduces the zinc, which then unites with the copper. The heat is kept up for five or six hours, and towards the last of the process, is raised. Zinc, in small proportion, renders copper pale, and in the proportion of one-twelfth, inclines its colour to yellow. The yellow colour increases in intensity with the zinc, until the weight of this metal in the alloy equals that of the copper. An increase of zinc, afterwards makes the alloy white. English brass contains one-third of its weight of zinc. In Germany and Sweden, the proportion of zinc varies from one-fifth to one-fourth of the copper. Twenty to forty parts of zinc, with eighty to sixty parts of copper form the cuivre jaune, laiton, or yellow copper of the French.

Dutch metal, or Dutch gold, is a fine kind of brass, and comes in leaf, which is about five times as thick as gold leaf. This brass is made by the cementation of copper plates with calamine, and hammered out into leaves.

According to Thenard (Traité de Chimie, tome i, p. 478), the French use 50 parts of calamine, mixed intimately with 20 parts of charcoal, and stratified in a crucible with 30 parts of laminated, or granulated copper. British brass consists of two parts of copper, and 1¹/₈ parts of zinc, by weight.

The filings of brass are much employed in fire-works. They communicate to stars, rains, &c. a flame between a blue and green. In some, the filings of copper alone are used. A beautiful green fire, for instance, is produced by 16 ounces of gunpowder, and 3¹/₄ ounces of copper-filings. Verdigris is also employed for the same purpose; but the effect is not so striking, as in that preparation, the copper is already oxidized. The effect of copper in fire-works, it is to be recollected, depends, like that of other metals, on its combustion, and consequent oxidizement. The product of the combustion of brass, is oxide of copper, and oxide of zinc.

Sec. XLIV. Of Bronze.

The union of copper with tin, in various proportions, forms gun-metal, bell-metal, the mirrors of telescopes, and bronze.

The ductility of the copper is diminished by the tin; but its hardness, and tenacity, as well as its fusibility and sonorousness are increased.

To form a complete union of the two metals, they should be continued in fusion for some time, and constantly stirred.[199] The tin is apt to rise to the surface, unless this precaution is used.

Bronze is usually composed of 100 parts of copper, and 8 to 12 parts of tin. It is yellow, brittle, heavier than copper, and has more tenacity.

The same metals, and in the same proportion, constitute gun-metal. In the brass ordnance made at Woolwich, the proportion of tin varies from 8 to 12, to the 100 parts of copper. The purest copper requires the most. That the alloy is more sonorous than iron, is evident from the report of brass pieces, being louder than that occasioned by iron guns.

When the alloy is 78 of copper and 22 of tin, it is chiefly used for clocks. There is, in the English metal, about five per cent. of zinc, and four per cent. of lead. The proportion of tin, in bell-metal, varies. In church bells, less tin is used than for small bells. In the latter, zinc is sometimes added.

The Tam-tam, or gong of the Chinese, used for cymbals, clocks, mirrors, &c. contains, according to analysis, 80 parts of copper, and 20 parts of tin. The proportions, however, are not always the same.

The ancients made cutting instruments of an alloy of copper and tin. A dagger, analyzed by Mr. Hielm, consisted of 83⁷/₈ copper, and 16¹/₈ tin. Vessels of bronze were frequently covered with silver. Some of this kind were found in the ruins of Herculaneum.

Pliny observes, that ancient mirrors were made with a mixture of copper and tin; but that, in his time, those of silver were so common, that they were even used by the maid servants. The quantity of tin, to make the most perfect speculum, depends on the quality of the copper. If the proportion of tin be too small, the composition will be yellowish; if it be too great, the composition will be of a grayish-blue colour. Mr. Edwards casts the speculum in sand with its face downwards; takes it out while red-hot, and places it in hot wood-ashes to cool, otherwise it would break in cooling. The mixture is first granulated, by pouring it into water, and then fused a second time for casting. Mr. Little recommends the following proportions: 32 parts of the best bar copper, 4 parts of brass, or pin wire, 16¹/₂ of tin, and 1¹/₄ of arsenic.

Whether for speculum metal, bronze, or gun-metal, the metals must be mixed exactly, and for this purpose be kept a long time in fusion, and constantly stirred; otherwise, the alloy will not be of a uniform quality, as the greater part of[200] the copper will sink to the bottom, and the greater part of the tin rise to the surface. When we speak of brass guns, as that name is generally applied to them, we are to understand, that they are not made, like brass, of an alloy of copper and zinc.

The ancient metallic mirrors, which were in use before the present mirrors, or the discovery of glass, and the mode of applying to its surface an amalgam of tin, were composed of two parts of copper and one part of tin. Mr. Mudge asserts, that the best proportion for mirrors is 32 parts of copper and 14.5 parts of tin. Klaproth found a specimen of ancient mirror to consist of 32 of tin, 8 of lead, and 62 of copper. The alloys of copper and tin may be decomposed by dissolving them in an acid, the muriatic for instance, and immersing a sheet of iron, which will precipitate the copper. The tin may then be separated by immersing a plate of lead, or zinc, by either of which metals, it will be precipitated.

Bronze, being a mixed metal, in which the copper forms the principal ingredient, is sometimes used in fire-works, in lieu of copper or brass; for its effects are similar. By the combustion of bronze filings, we have an oxide of copper and an oxide of tin.

Sec. XLV. Of Mosaic Gold.

This name, or aurum musivum, was given to a preparation of tin, composed of tin and sulphur. It is considered to be a persulphuret of tin.

Several methods are recommended for preparing this substance. The oldest process is to sublime a mixture of 12 parts of tin, 7 parts of sulphur, 3 parts of mercury, and 3 parts of sal ammoniac. It may be formed by heating together in a retort, a mixture of equal parts of sulphur and oxide of tin.

It is used principally for rubbing the cushions of electrical machines, and for bronzing wood. In fire-works, it is sometimes employed under the name of gold-powder.

It was supposed to be a combination of sulphur with the oxide of tin. Dr. J. Davy (Phil. Trans. 1812, p. 199) and Berzelius, (Nich. Jour. xxxv, 165), have proved, however, that it is nothing more than metallic tin and sulphur; the proportions of which, according to the former, are 100 of tin + 56.25 of sulphur.

Mosaic gold is of a yellow colour, resembling that of gold. It is insoluble in water, and is not acted upon by muriatic or nitric acid. The nitromuriatic, however, decomposes it. A solution of caustic potassa dissolves it, forming a green so[201]lution, which is decomposed by acids, letting fall a hydrosulphuret of tin. It deflagrates with nitre.

When it is used in fire-works, it is pulverized, and sifted. It is more generally employed as a pigment to impart a golden colour to small statues of plaster-paris. When mixed with melted glass, it is said to imitate lapis lazuli.

Sec. XLVI. Of Iron and Steel.

Both iron and steel are used abundantly in fire-works. It would be unnecessary to detail the preparations, in which they are employed, which may be seen by a reference to the different kinds of fire, and to their respective formulæ.

Cast iron is more employed in artificial fire than forged iron or steel, at least in the preparation of some, as gerbes, white fountains, and Chinese fire.

The filings of iron and steel may be sifted through sieves. A fine hair sieve will answer for common purposes. Their fineness depends, in the first instance, on the file, which is used. Steel or iron filings are more commonly employed in the compositions for brilliant fire.

The sparks produced by cast-iron are very brilliant; but the reduction of the iron to powder, or to a degree of fineness sufficient for use, is a difficult operation. It is of too hard a nature to be cut by a file.

This operation is generally performed in the following manner: Procure from an iron foundry, some thin pieces of cast iron, such as generally run over the mould at the time of casting, and pound them on a block, made of cast iron, with an iron hammer of four pounds weight, putting, under the block, a cloth to catch the pieces of iron, which fly off. They are beaten with the hammer in this manner, until the whole is reduced to grains, which are more or less small. It is then thrown into a sieve, which should be fine, and the dust separated. This is used, in the place of steel dust, in small cases of brilliant fire. The remainder is then put into a sieve, a little coarser, and again sifted. This portion is preserved separately. The same operation is repeated, but with sieves of different sizes, till the iron passes through about the bigness of small bird shot.

The pulverization may be effected in an iron mortar, with a steel pestle, having the mortar covered in the usual manner, to prevent the escape of the finer particles of the iron.

According to a writer in the Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, vol. iii, p. 34, the Chinese prepare their iron-sand for fire-works[202] by igniting iron, and plunging it in cold water. They then pulverize the scales thus formed, and pass the powder obtained, through different sized sieves, which is then called No. 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. as it is very fine or coarse. This cannot be a good method, and we doubt whether it is at present employed; because it is obvious, that the scales, in this case, consist of the metal in the state of protoxide. D'Incarville, a missionary at Pekin, obtained the process for making Chinese fire; and observes, that the pulverized cast iron they employ is called iron-sand, of which they have six numbers or varieties.

As the goodness of iron or steel dust, in fire-works, depends greatly on its being dry, and not oxidized or rusted; its preservation must be accordingly attended to. The usual preservative is to put it in a box, lined with oiled paper, and covered with the same, or in tin cannisters, with their mouths well closed.

When it is to be used, it is taken according to its size, and in proportion to the cases, for which the charge is intended. Large gerbes, of 6 or 8 lbs. require only the coarse sort.

As the brilliancy of the sparks, produced by the iron and steel dust, is a desideratum in the formation of some fire-works, and as this brilliancy depends upon the nature and quality of the metal, it may not be improper to offer some remarks on these subjects.

That iron, when finely divided is capable of producing sparks of fire, is a well known fact; and we see it daily in the operations of the smith, when ignited iron is hammered on the anvil. The scintillation produced by the steel, when struck with a flint, is of the same character. In the latter case, the metal is actually fused, and, when caught on a paper, and examined with a microscope, will appear globular, and partly oxidized. Hence it is, that gunpowder is inflamed by this spark, which is nothing more than highly ignited, and inflamed iron, possessing a temperature more than sufficient to inflame gunpowder.

The effect, therefore, that results from the inflammation of fire-works, in which iron or steel forms a constituent part, is nothing more than a vivid combustion of the metal; and during that process it becomes oxidized, as it does not form an acid with oxygen, like arsenic, antimony, and some other metals.

The combustion of iron or steel may be shown by a very brilliant experiment, that of burning it in oxygen gas. A[203] steel wire, harpsichord wire for instance, formed into a spiral, with a small piece of wood dipped in sulphur, stuck on its end and then set on fire, upon being immediately introduced into a bottle, containing pure oxygen gas, will burn with great brilliancy, emitting a number of sparks or scintillations, which fall like rain. In making the experiment, some sand should be put into the bottle to prevent the sparks from breaking it. This experiment illustrates the rapid combustion of iron, or steel. For the oxygen gas supports the combustion; and while the oxygen is actually taken up by the metal, which becomes oxidized, and therefore increased in weight, in the same manner as it does when inflamed in fire-works, the caloric, the other constituent of oxygen gas, is given out in a free state, and, with the light at the same time evolved, produces the phenomena of combustion.

Many other experiments might be mentioned, in which the same effects take place, and from which the same conclusions may be drawn. But with respect to the effect, whether it be dull, brilliant, or very brilliant, depends more on the quality of the metal, than perhaps, on its subsequent mixture with the other materials. Crude iron, usually called cast iron, seems to possess this property in an eminent degree; but in the experiment with oxygen gas, steel is always preferable, as the combustion is more rapid, and the effect more striking. The difference, which we will not attempt to explain, may depend on the state, as well as the proportion of carbon, which enters into crude iron, as well as steel. In one case, the combustion ensues in contact with nitre, and in atmospheric air; in the other, in contact only with oxygen gas. Be this as it may, this inference is conclusive, that, in all cases of the combustion of iron in fire-works, the metal itself unites with oxygen, and the result of the combustion is an oxide of iron; and with respect to the carbon, in both instances, it is converted alike into carbonic acid. So that whether the iron receives its oxygen from the nitre, or from the air, or from both, is immaterial, as the products are the same.

When iron is exposed to the atmosphere, it tarnishes, and is gradually changed into a brown or yellow powder, called rust. This change is owing to its combination with oxygen; and its affinity for oxygen is such, that, when the vapour of water is made to pass through an ignited gun-barrel, it is decomposed, the metal becoming oxidized, and the hydrogen, the other constituent of the water, being liberated in the form of gas.

[204]

Gun barrels are browned by a process of oxidizement. There are several processes recommended. One of which is, to rub the barrel over with diluted nitric or muriatic acid, and then, to lay it by for a week or two, until a complete coat of rust is formed. A brush, made of iron wire, is then applied; afterwards, oil and wax, and the barrel is finished by rubbing it with a cloth. The gunsmiths in Philadelphia use a mixed solution of sulphate of copper, tincture of the muriate of iron, and sweet spirit of nitre. This they apply by means of a cloth. The object is to form a rust, and to render it permanent on the barrel by hard friction along with wax. When sulphate of copper is employed, metallic copper is precipitated on the barrel. A coat of rust, put on in this manner, prevents effectually the oxidizement of the iron; and in point of utility, and the saving of labour in polishing and keeping muskets in order, the browning of barrels is certainly advantageous in the land service. At sea, in particular, where iron is more readily oxidized, this plan ought always to be adopted. With regard to the use of dragon's blood, it is entirely too temporary in its effect to be depended on. I was informed by an intelligent gunsmith, who followed the practice of browning barrels in Europe, that he has known the browning to remain very perfect for years, and that the best mode of insuring its durability is to use the steel brush, which carries in, as he expressed it, the rust.

The oxides, which are formed by the union of oxygen with iron, are two; namely, the black and the red; the first being the protoxide, and the last the peroxide. The black oxide, which is formed by the combustion of iron, and by other processes, contains 56 iron + 16 oxygen. The common rust of iron is the peroxide of this metal, combined with carbonic acid. It may be formed by exposing the protosulphate of iron, or green vitriol, in solution, to the atmosphere, and then adding an alkali. This oxide contains more oxygen than the preceding; it consisting of 56 iron + 24 oxygen.

The tempering of cutting instruments, an operation which requires great delicacy and exactness, after that of hardening, is intended to obtain a fine and durable edge; and as this subject may be interesting in a military point of view, we deem the following remarks of use.

The hardening of steel instruments is performed by heating them to a cherry-red, and then immersing them in cold water. The tempering is another process, calculated, as we[205] observed, to obtain a fine and durable edge. This is performed by heating oil to a certain temperature, and plunging the instrument into it, where it remains until the colour appears, indicative of the particular kind of temper which is intended to be given. The experiments of Stoddart, (Nicholson's Quarto Journal, iv, 129,) are conclusive on this subject; for his experiments prove, that, between 430° and 450° the instrument assumes a pale yellowish tinge: at 460° the colour is a straw-yellow, and the instrument has the usual temper of pen-knives, razors, and other fine edge tools. The colour gradually deepens as the temperature rises, and at 500° becomes a bright brownish metallic yellow. As the heat increases, the surface is successively yellow, brown, red, and purple, to 580°, when it becomes of a uniform deep blue, like that of watch springs. Before the instrument becomes red-hot, the blue changes to a water colour, which is the last distinguishable colour. These different shades are owing to the oxidizement of the surface of the metal; and the art of ornamenting sword-blades, knives, &c. long practised in Sheffield, depends on this principle. The general process is, that an oily composition is used, with which flowers and various ornaments are painted. On the application of the heat required for tempering it, that part which was covered with the composition, is not altered, whereas, the uncovered parts of the blade are changed. These ornaments, when the paint is removed, have the natural colour of polished steel. When steel is heated in hydrogen gas, no appearance of the kind takes place, a fact which shows, that it is owing to the oxidizement of the metal.

Iron is soluble in the acids. By the assistance of water, it is acted upon by sulphuric acid; the metal being oxidized, and the oxide dissolved, while hydrogen gas is evolved. The salt, formed in this case, is the sulphate of iron, green vitriol, or copperas. With muriatic, nitric, acetic and other acids, it forms various salts; and with gallic acid, when the iron is peroxidized, it forms the pergallate of iron, or common writing ink, and also the bases of black dye.

Iron unites with carbon, sulphur and phosphorus. Of the sulphurets, there are two kinds, the protosulphuret and persulphuret. The former is the magnetic pyrites, and the latter, cubic pyrites, from both of which, green vitriol is obtained by decomposition. Pyrites, we may observe, was the original fire-stone, or the feuer-stein of the Germans, which was used in the place of flint. See Beckman's History of Invention. Iron also unites with some of the metals, forming[206] alloys. The white iron of the French, (Fer blanc,) or tin plate of the English, is found to be any alloy of tin with iron, as well as a covering of tin on iron.

Sheet tin, or tinplate which is necessary in the construction of the apparatus for some fire-works, for canister shot, &c. is made by immersing sheets of iron, previously freed from rust, into melted tin. The number of dippings it undergoes, determines, in some measure, its quality and character.

The union of carbon and iron, forming very important modifications of this metal, is not only interesting in the military art, as concerns the metal for cannon, small arms, and fire-works, but also in relation to the many and highly useful compounds which result.

All the varieties of iron, which are distinguished by artists, under particular names, we may consider under the following heads: namely; cast iron, wrought or soft iron, and steel.

Cast or pig iron is the name of this metal, when first obtained from the ore. The ores of iron are various, and contain a greater or less quantity of iron, which is either combined with oxygen, or found with clay, giving rise to two important classes of iron ore, the calciform and the argillaceous. The reduction of the ore merely requires the presence of charcoal, and occasionally some addition, as limestone, when the clay iron ores are to be reduced. On the application of heat in furnaces, constructed for the purpose, the charcoal unites with the oxygen of the oxide, reducing it to the metallic state, and escapes in the form of carbonic acid; and the lime, if the ore be argillaceous, unites with the clay, forming a kind of glass, which floats on the melted metal. When the iron is suffered to run into moulds, prepared for its reception, it usually takes the name of pig iron.

Manufacturers distinguish cast iron by its colour and other qualities. The white cast iron is hard and brittle, and can neither be filed, bored, nor bent. Gray mottled iron, so called from its colour, is of a granulated texture, softer, and may be cut, bored and turned on the lathe. Cannon are made of this iron. Black cast iron is the most unequal in its texture, but the most fusible.

Cast iron melts at 130° of Wedgwood. Its specific gravity varies from 7.2 to 7.6. It is converted into malleable, usually called soft iron, by a process called refinement. Several modes have been adopted for this purpose. It was formerly done by keeping it in fusion in a bed of charcoal and ashes[207], and afterwards forging it. The hammering makes the particles of iron approach each other, and expels some impurities.

Among the various improvements for expeditiously and effectually converting crude into malleable iron, the process of Mr. Cort seems to possess advantages. The cast iron is melted in a reverberatory furnace, and the flame of the combustible is made to act upon the melted matter. It is stirred during this operation, by which means, every part is exposed to the air. A lambent blue flame begins to appear in about an hour, and the mass swells. The heat is continued about an hour longer; and, by this time, the iron acquires more consistency, and finally congeals. While still hot, it is next hammered by powerful tilt-hammers. This is called the puddling process.

Iron, obtained in this way, is not however pure; for it contains either some of the other metals, or oxygen, carbon, silicon, or phosphorus.

When small pieces of iron are stratified in a crucible with charcoal powder, and exposed to a strong heat for eight or ten hours, they are converted into steel. Steel is brittle, resists the file, cuts glass, and affords sparks with flint. It loses its hardness by ignition and cooling. It is malleable at a red heat. It melts at 130 degrees of Wedgwood. By being repeatedly ignited in an open vessel, it becomes, by hammering, wrought iron.

Natural steel is that which is formed, by converting the ore first into cast-iron, and exposing it to the action of a strong heat, while the melted scoriæ float on its surface. This steel is inferior to the others. Steel of cementation is formed, on a large scale, by stratifying bars of iron with charcoal, in large earthen troughs or crucibles, the mouths of which are closed with clay. These troughs are put in furnaces, and, in eight or ten days, the process is finished. This is also called blistered steel, on account of the appearance of its surface. The tilted steel is that which is beaten out into small bars by the hammer. When broken, and the pieces again united by welding in a furnace, and made into bars, it is then called German or shear steel.

Cast steel is considered the most valuable of all the varieties; and is used for the manufacture of razors, surgeons' instruments, &c. It is, besides, more fusible than common steel, and for that reason, cannot be welded with iron. It is made by melting the blistered steel, in a close crucible, along with pounded glass, and charcoal powder. It may also be formed by melting together 30 parts of iron, 1 part of charcoal, and[208] 1 part of glass. Equal parts of chalk and clay, put with iron in a crucible, will also produce it.

The Celtiberians in Spain had a singular mode of preparing steel. Diodorus and Plutarch both say, that the iron was buried in the earth, and left in that situation, till the greater part of it was converted into rust. What remained, without being oxidized, was afterwards forged and made into weapons, and particularly swords, with which they could cut asunder bones, shields, and helmets. This process is used in Japan, however improbable it may seem; and Swedenbourg, among the different methods of making steel, has introduced it. Bishop Watson, (Chemical Essays 8vo. i, p. 220,) speaks of the same process. The fact has been verified at Gottingen; for an anvil, which had been buried in the ground for many years, was found to be extremely soft; and a part of it, which appeared in steel-like grains, possessed the properties of steel.

The sabres made in Japan, according to Thunberg, are incomparable. Without hurting the edge, they can be made to cut through a nail at one blow.

The art of hardening steel by immersion in cold water is very old. Homer (Odyssia ix, 301,) says, that, when Ulysses bored out the eye of Polyphemus with a burning stake, it hissed in the same manner as water, when the smith immerses in it a piece of red-hot iron, in order to harden it. Sophocles, Salmasius, Pliny, Justin and others mention the use of water in hardening iron; but the most delicate articles of that metal were not quenched in water, but in oil. As to the opinion of the peculiar virtue of any particular water, for the purpose of hardening iron, which many have believed, it is altogether fallacious, although Vasari asserts, that the archduke Cosmo, in 1555, discovered a water, that would harden instruments, to cut, like the ancient tools, the hardest porphyry. The art of working porphyry, however, was known in every age. Beckman assures us, when treating of the processes of making steel, that the invention and art of converting bar iron into steel, by dipping it into other fused iron, and suffering it to remain there several hours, although ascribed to Reaumur, (Art de Convertir le Fer en Acier, p. 145), are mentioned by Agricola, Imperati, and others, as a thing well known and practised in their time.

Pliny, Diamachus, and other ancient writers mention various countries and places, which, in their time, produced excellent steel. The ferrum Indicum and Sericum were the dearest kinds. The former is the same as the ferrum candidum, a hundred talents of which were given, as a present, to Alexander in India.

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Beckman thinks, that the ancient ferrum candidum is the same kind of steel still common in India, and known under the name of wootz; some pieces of which were sent from Bombay in 1795 to the Royal Society. Its silver coloured appearance, when polished, he thinks, may have given rise to the epithet of candidum.

Mr. Faraday of the Royal Institution has lately examined wootz, and imitated it very accurately. The experiments may be seen in Ure's Chemical Dictionary, article Iron. It appears that the presence of silex and alumina distinguishes this kind of steel from the English. Four hundred and sixty grains of wootz gave 0.3 of a grain of silex, and 0.6 of a grain of alumina. It is highly probable, that the much admired sabres of Damascus, are made from this steel.

A small portion of silver, melted with steel, improves the latter very considerably. One part of silver and five hundred parts of steel were melted together, and every part of the alloy formed, when tested, indicated silver. The alloy forged remarkably well, although very hard, and was pronounced to be superior to the very best steel. This excellence is undoubtedly owing to its combination with the silver, however small. The alloy has been repeatedly made, and with the same success. Various cutting tools have been made from it of the best quality. The silver is found to give a mechanical toughness to the steel.

Platinum and steel, equal parts by weight, form a beautiful alloy, which takes a fine polish, and does not tarnish. This alloy is said to make the best speculum. Steel, for edge tools, is improved by this metal. The proportions, which appear to be most proper, are from one to three per cent. An alloy of 10 platinum with 80 of steel, after exposure for many months, had not a speck on its surface. Would not this alloy, as it is not oxidized, be very useful for making points for lightning rods, in lieu of iron, gold, silver, or platinum alone? The experiment is worth a trial; for nothing adds more to the safety of a magazine, or building, against the effect of lightning, than a conductor.

Iron and carbon, it appears, are capable of uniting in different proportions; hence the variety of crude iron, and the different kinds of steel. When the carbon exceeds the iron, as in plumbago, or black lead, it forms a carburet. When the iron exceeds, such compounds are properly speaking sub-carburets; under which name, we may rank all the varieties of cast iron and steel.

The hardness of iron, according to the experiments of[210] Mushet, (Phil. Mag. xiii, p. 138), increases with the proportion of charcoal, with which it combines, until the carbon amounts to about ¹/₆₀th of the whole mass. This is the maximum, the metal acquiring the colour of silver. More carbon diminishes the hardness, according to its quantity. The difference in iron, whether it be the cold-short, or hot-short iron, a matter of some consequence to the workers in this metal, was found to be owing to phosphoric acid in the cold-short, which exists with the iron. But the substance, called siderum by Bergman, is a phosphuret, and not a phosphate of iron.

We have gone into this subject more fully, on account of its importance, and intimate connection with the casting of guns, and the different qualities of iron. In fire-works, it will appear obvious, that the various properties exhibited by iron are owing to the iron and carbon, to the changes which they undergo, to the combustion which necessarily ensues, and to the production of oxide of iron, and carbonic acid gas; effects that invariably take place, whether cast iron or steel be used, provided it is exposed to the action of agents, under the same circumstances and conditions.

Sec. XLVII. Of Glass.

Glass, in the form of powder or dust, is used in fire-works. The pulverization of glass is easily performed. It may be done in an iron mortar, and passed though fine wire or brass sieves. It is used in the composition for wheels, in water balloons, cones, fire-pumps, slow white fire, &c.

Glass is nothing more than fused silica, made by exposing a mixture of silica and other substances to the action of a violent heat.

The quality of the glass depends on the proportion of silica, and the fluxes which are used in promoting its fusion; for the various kinds of glass, as white glass, green glass, bottle glass, &c. are all, in one respect, the same, though they differ in these particulars.

The glass of Saint-Gobin in France is made by fusing white sand, lime, soda, and broken inferior glass. The white goblet-glass is made of sand, potash, lime, and old glass; the quantity of potash is about fifty per cent. If green, or yellow, the colour is destroyed by the addition of black oxide of manganese; and hence that oxide is named glass makers' soap.

The common plate glass, for electrical machines, &c. is formed of sand, crude soda, old glass, and oxide of manga[211]nese. The bottle glass, made with the soda of marine plants, consists of sand, soda, common ashes, and old glass. Another bottle glass is made by melting common sand, black or yellow, with soda, wood-ashes, clay, and broken glass. It appears from the use of the substances which enter into, and compose, glass, that its quality is owing to the materials employed. The crystal or flint glass is a finer kind. The substances, with the proportions in which they are used, are the following:

To this is added, if the vitrification is not complete, some muriate of soda. Good glass, according to Pajot des Charmes, may be made by fusing equal parts of carbonate of lime, sand, and sulphate of soda. The glass is clear, solid, and of a pale yellow. Professor Scheweigger found, that the following proportions were the best:

Broad glass is made of a mixture of soap-boilers' waste, kelp, and sand. Two of waste, one of kelp, and one of sand are the proportions generally employed. Common bottle glass is usually made of waste and river sand, to which lime, and clay, and common salt are occasionally added.

The coloured glasses are produced by various metallic oxides. The colour and beauty of precious stones are thus imitated. These colours are communicated by sundry metallic preparations, as the following: The purple powder of Cassius, with oxide of manganese, will give a red or purple according to the proportions used; zaffre, an oxide of cobalt, a blue; a mixture of oxide of cobalt, muriate of silver, or glass of antimony, a green; and oxide of manganese, a violet, &c.

The basis of all artificial precious stones, is composed of what is called glass-paste, a compound of silica, potash, borax, red lead, and sometimes arsenic. These substances are melted together. The glass, which forms the body of the artificial gem, is pulverized, and the colouring substances are blended with it by sifting; and then the whole must be carefully fused, being left on the fire for from 24 to 30 hours, and cooled very slowly. The following proportions are used for this purpose:

Ruby. Paste 2880, oxide of manganese 72.

Emerald. Paste 4608, green oxide of copper 42, oxide of chrome 2.

Sapphire. Paste 4608, oxide of cobalt 68, fused for 30 hours.

Amethyst. Paste 4608, oxide of manganese 36, oxide of cobalt 24, purple of Cassius 1.

Beryl. Paste 3456, glass of antimony 24, oxide of cobalt 1¹/₂.

[213] Styrian garnet, or ancient carbuncle. Paste 512, glass of antimony 256, Cassius purple 2, oxide of manganese 2.

The following recipes are given by M. Lancon:

Paste. Litharge 100, white sand 75, potash 10.

Emerald. Paste 9216, acetate of copper 72, peroxide of iron 1.5.

Amethyst. Paste 9216, oxide of manganese from 15 to 24, oxide of cobalt 1.

The ancient coloured glass has been much admired. The art was carried to a very great extent. Even in Pliny's time, the highest price was set upon glass entirely free from colour. He, as well as others, mentions that hyacinths and sapphires were imitated very exactly.

The emperor Adrian received as a present from an Egyptian priest, several glass cups richly ornamented with various coloured glass. Seneca speaks of the knowledge of Democritus in this art. Porta, Neri, and others, in modern times, have treated the subject in a more enlarged manner. Coloured glass was used for ornament; but Pollio relates, that Gallenius punished an impostor for selling to his wife a piece of glass for a jewel. In the Museum Victorium at Rome, are several ancient artificial gems, such as the chrysolite and emerald. What materials the ancients used for colouring glass is not known. Gmelin, however, observes, that it is probable they made use of iron, by which, he adds, not only all the shades of red, violet and yellow, but even a blue colour might be communicated. Cassius discovered the powder which bears his name. He was a physician, and resided at Lubec.[22] This powder was employed by the German artists. While noticing this subject, it may be proper to state, that Libavius (Alchemy, 1606,) gives a process for making ruby glass. Neri, (ars vitraria by Kunkel,) was acquainted with the gold-purple and its use. Glauber (Furnus Philosophicus, 1648) mentions the use, and gives the preparation of the powder. Kunkel made artificial rubies in great abundance, and a cup of ruby glass for the elector of Cologne. In 1679, he was inspector of the glass houses at Potsdam; and, in perfecting the art, he expended 1600[214] ducats, which the elector of Brandenburgh gave him for the purpose.

M. Brongniart has lately made many experiments on the subject of staining glass. The colours, however, are the same as we noticed. A green glass may be made by putting on one side of the glass a blue, and on the other a yellow. A black glass may be made by a mixture of blue with the oxides of manganese and iron. Painting on glass is an ancient art. When pieces of old painted glass are examined, they have always on one side a transparent red varnish burnt into them. The moderns, however, excel in this art.

Glass is not acted upon by the acids, except the fluoric or hydrofluoric. Hence the acid of Derbyshire spar, which is a fluate of lime, is used for etching on glass, in the same manner as nitric acid is, on copper. Fluoric acid, a compound of fluorine and hydrogen, is decomposed during this action, and is changed, by the union of its fluorine with silicon, into the silicated fluoric acid.

When a quantity of alkali is used just sufficient to fuse silica, glass is the result; but when the quantity is greater, as three or four to one, the fused mass is soluble in water, and then forms the silicated alkali, or liquor of flints. From this the silica is obtained in a pure state, by the addition of an acid.

Glass, when melted and dropped into water, assumes an oval form, with a slender projection, called a tail. This is called Prince Rupert's drop. If a small part of this tail be broken off, the whole bursts into powder, with a kind of explosion. The Bologna, or philosophical phial, is a small cylindrical vessel of glass, rounded at the bottom, but open at the upper end. It is made thick at the bottom, so as not to be easily broken; but if a pebble be dropped into it, it immediately cracks, and the whole falls into pieces. In both these, (the drop and the bottle,) the glass is unannealed. When the external part of glass is suddenly cooled, the inner part is kept, as it were, contracted. Now annealing, the process of tempering glass in an oven, renders the glass uniformly alike, and capable of sustaining the variations of temperature, without breaking. By a crack or fissure, the internal parts which remained in a state of tension, endeavour to recover the full state of expansion, and consequently the glass is rent asunder.

Sec. XLVIII. Glue and Isinglass.

Both glue and isinglass are animal products. They are used[215] in fire-works, but always in the state of solution, as vehicles to mix up compositions in order to make them unite, and to preserve them from falling to powder. The quantity, however, is never large, or either would destroy the effect. The proportions are generally prescribed. A solution of glue is employed in the old process for refining saltpetre. See Nitre. In making priming paste, isinglass dissolved in brandy is sometimes used.

Glue and isinglass owe their adhesive quality to the presence of gelatin; the most remarkable property of which is, that it unites with, and precipitates the tanning principle from its solution in water. For this reason, the use of oak bark and other astringent substances, in the tanning of leather, is obvious, the gelatin of the hide or skin, uniting with the tannin and forming tanned leather. Gelatin exists in bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, membranes and skins. Skins, especially those of old animals, furnish the best and strongest glue.

For the preparation of glue, the parings and offals of hides, pelts, and the hoofs and ears of horses, oxen, calves, sheep, &c. are first digested in lime-water to clean them; then steeped in fresh water, which is suffered to run off; and being previously inclosed in a strong linen bag, are boiled in a copper cauldron with pure water. The impurities are removed as they rise. To the solution, alum, or finely powdered lime, is added. It is then strained through baskets and allowed to settle; after which, the clear fluid is again boiled. When it becomes thick, or of a proper consistence, it is poured into moulds or frames, when it concretes into jelly. It is cut into pieces by a spade, and then into thin slices by means of wire, and finally dried on coarse net-work.

The goodness of glue is known by its brittleness, and equal degree of transparency, without black spots. It swells up in cold water, and becomes gelatinous, but does not dissolve. It is a mark of want of strength, when glue dissolves in cold water.

Size is also a gelatinous substance, and is colourless and transparent. Eel skins, vellum, parchment, &c. are used in its preparation. They are treated in the same manner as hides. Isinglass, or fish glue, is a finer kind of gelatin, obtained from the air bladder and sounds of different kinds of fish of the accipenser genus; as the sturio stellatus, huso ruthenses, &c. The bladder, when taken from the fish, is washed and stripped of its exterior membrane, and then cut lengthwise and formed into rolls, or cut into strips. Isinglass dissolves in water with more difficulty than glue. A[216] coarser kind of fish glue is made from sea wolves, porpoises, sharks, cuttle fish, the sturgeon, &c. The head, tail, fins, &c. are boiled in water, and the solution evaporated. Isinglass is used for a variety of purposes, as the making of court plaster and size, the clarification of liquors, &c.

Isinglass is almost wholly gelatin. One hundred grains give ninety-eight of soluble matter.

Gelatin constitutes the greater part of the solid parts of animals, such as bone, ligament, muscle, membrane, skin, &c. and is always extracted by boiling them in water. We need hardly remark, that it constitutes the chief part of soup, which owes its nutritive qualities principally to its presence. The portable soup is nothing more than concrete gelatin, with other substances, as spices, salt, &c.; for it contains, in a small compass, the nutritive parts of beef, veal, and other animal substances, from which it may have been prepared.

Besides the use of water for extracting, or otherwise separating, the gelatin from bone, we may separate the phosphate of lime entirely from the latter, (as these two substances constitute the greater part of bone), by the action of dilute muriatic acid, which will dissolve the phosphate of lime, and leave the gelatin.

Sect. XLIX. Of Wood.

Of the kinds of wood, used for the preparation of coal, for the purpose of gunpowder, those should be preferred, which are light, and will give a tender charcoal. This subject was fully considered under that head.

But our intention, in noticing wood at this time, is, that it is employed in the composition of some fire-works in the form of saw-dusts, or raspings. Its use in fire-works may be considered, 1st, as producing a particular coloured flame: 2dly, as varying the character of the flame, and likewise the degree of the combustion; and 3dly, as communicating an agreeable odour along with other substances; as in odoriferous fire-works. To this, we may add its use in smoke-balls along with nitre and sulphur.

The raspings of wood are sometimes required to be extremely fine. This can only be done by employing sieves of different degrees of fineness. They should be preserved from the action of moisture.

In the composition of the new priming powder, of which chlorate of potassa is the basis, very fine raspings of a particu[217]lar kind of wood are employed. So is also lycopodium for the same purpose.

By the distillation of wood, as in the process of carbonization in iron cylinders, we obtain some volatile products, the chief of which is the pyroligneous, now called the pyroacetic acid, while the ligneous fibre is converted into coal; but, in the combustion of wood, all the volatile products are expelled, some being consumed in the flame, and others, with some carbon, condensed in the form of soot, while the residue is an ash which furnishes common potash.

Ovid in his Metamorphoses, fable xvi, says—"Adomitis Athamanis aquis accendere lignum narratur; minimos cum luna recessit in orbes." This idea we know is groundless; for it is impossible, that wood, sprinkled with water, whether the waters of Athamanis, or any other, should be kindled when the moon is in the decrease, or at any time of the moon's age.

To prevent the action of fire on wood, marine salt, vitriol, and alum have all been used. Various ways of employing them have been adopted; but they do not absolutely prevent wood taking fire in an active heat. For the same purpose, (Coll. Academ. tome xi, p. 487,) a mixture of green vitriol, and quicklime is recommended, by which we form sulphate of lime and oxide of iron. The Journal de Paris of 1781 contains various processes. At Vienna, saline substances are employed.

The combustion of wood is the same, in all cases, in which oxygen is concerned; but the products in some particulars may vary. Hence saw-dust, when mixed with nitrate of potassa, and inflamed, will burn, and produce little or no smoke, because the combustion is rapid and perfect; but when employed with sulphur and nitre, it produces much smoke. Here the oxygen is furnished by the nitre, and carbonic acid gas is formed. The same thing takes place, when a mixture of saw-dust and nitre is used in artificial fire; and, according as the decomposition is more or less rapid, the combustion will be so likewise. The particular applications of saw-dust will be noticed hereafter.

With respect to lycopodium or puff ball and various species of agaric, or the medullary excrescences of trees, which are used in some preparations of artificial fire, we may observe, that the first is confined principally to theatrical fire-works, and the second to the preparation of spunk, or tinder, called also pyrotechnical sponge. See Pyrotechnical Sponge.

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As to the substance usually called lightning wood, found in the hollow of the stumps of trees, and sometimes on the surface, which, from having lost its compactness and other characters of ligneous fibre, is called rotten wood, it is in fact the solid part of the wood in a state of decomposition, in consequence of which, it becomes a solar phosphorus. It appears to owe its phosphorescent property, i. e. its power of shining in the dark, to the previous absorption of light, and not, as some have suggested, to the presence of phosphorus, or the emission of any gaseous compound, which contains it. The process of animal putrefaction will produce such appearances, but, in this case, the cause is different.

Turf or peat, a substance found, and employed as fuel, in some countries, and found in boggy situations, is partially decomposed vegetable matter, consisting of a congeries of fibres or roots. But black mould is the result of a decomposition of vegetable substances, in which the ligneous fibre is carbonized, and mixed with earth. The formation of mould, however, is owing more to the decay of leaves &c. (See Coal.)

Dr. Shaw (Travels to the Holy Land) observes, that when they were either to boil or bake, camel's dung was their common fuel; which, after being exposed a day or two in the sun, catches fire like touch-wood; and burns as light as charcoal.

Sec. L. Of Linseed Oil.

Linseed, or flaxseed, oil is obtained by expression from flaxseed. It is a thick mucilaginous oil, when first extracted, called raw oil, and in this state, is seldom used. The preparation, it undergoes before it is used as drying oil for mixing with paints, is nothing more than boiling it with litharge, or some oxide of lead, which separates the mucilage, and unites with the oil. By this treatment, it acquires the property of drying with facility, when exposed to the atmosphere.

Linseed oil unites with great ease with oils, tallow, fat, wax, &c. Some of these compositions are used in fire-works. A preparation of pitch, mutton suet, and linseed oil is used, for instance, in preventing the access of moisture to fuses; and in military fire-works, it is employed in combination with pitch, rosin, mutton suet and turpentine for incendiary works. Wax, and tallow, we may here add, are also used in the preparations of similar works.

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Sec. LI. Of Gum arabic, and Gum Tragacanth.

Gum arabic, which exudes from a tree that grows in Egypt and Arabia (Mimosa nilotica) when pure is transparent, and nearly colourless. There are several varieties of this gum; the gum senegal, for instance, which is of a reddish colour, and occurs in larger pieces. Other mucilaginous substances, the peach tree gum, the cherry tree gum, &c. which exist only in small quantities, are analogous to the gum of the Mimosa.

Gum arabic is brittle, and for that reason may be easily reduced to powder. It is readily dissolved in water, with which it forms mucilage. In this state, it is employed in fire-works, chiefly as a vehicle for the mixing of pastes, matches, &c.

Gum is a vegetable oxide, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. It does not crystallize. It is precipitated by some metallic salts, as acetate of lead. It is insoluble in alcohol, which distinguishes it from resins. Nitric acid decomposes it, and changes it into the saclactic or mucous acid. With sugar, the same acid produces oxalic acid.

Gum tragacanth, or gum dragon, is the produce of a thorny shrub, which grows in Candia, and other islands of the Levant, called astragalus tragacantha. The gum obtained from this shrub has many properties in common with gum arabic, and is, therefore, used as a paste. It dissolves readily in boiling water; but is insoluble in alcohol, or ether.

It consists, almost entirely, of a peculiar vegetable principle, which is called cerasin by Dr. John. Cerasin has the adhesive qualities of gum arabic, but in a greater degree. It is said to constitute a part of the gummy matter, that exudes from the prunus cerasus, prunus avies, prunus domestica, &c.

Sec. LII. Of Cotton.

The soft down, which envelopes the seeds of different species of gossypium, or cotton plant, is the cotton of commerce. These plants are natives of warm climates. Cotton when bleached is perfectly white. It is extremely combustible, and burns with a clear lively flame. The ashes left behind contain potash.

Cotton is the substance, usually employed in making match rope, for the communication of fire. It has also other uses in pyrotechny. Cotton match is much used in fire-works for exhibition, not only for single cases, but also for a series of cases of artificial fire, either for fixed or moveable pieces; and serves to communicate fire, either singly, or from one case to[220] another, or to the whole piece at one time. Matches, so used, are called leaders, and are generally confined in paper tubes.

Cotton is one of the best applications to recent burns. Applied to the part, it will, in a surprising manner, abate the violence of the pain, and remove the inflammation.

Cotton is soluble in alkaline ley. For some of the earths, it has a strong affinity, particularly alumina; as also for several metallic oxides, and tannin. The action of mordants, in dying of cotton-goods, depends on these affinities. Nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid.

Cotton wick for lamps, candles, &c. is rendered very inflammable by spirit of turpentine. By dipping the end of the wick in turpentine, the candle will inflame at once, the moment flame is applied. For candle-making, the wick is sometimes dipped in a solution of camphor in spirits, or in a melted mixture of camphor and wax. See Candle.

Sec. LIII. Of Bone and Ivory.

Bone, which is considered to be a combination of phosphate of lime, gelatinous matter, animal oil, &c. is used occasionally in fire-works. By destructive distillation, bones, or osseous matter, afford ammonia, Dippel's animal oil, &c.; and, when consumed by fire, leave a white ash, which is composed principally of phosphate of lime. Bone-ash is the result of the combustion of bone; for, while all the gelatinous substance, oil, &c. are burnt off, that, which composes the basis of bone, and which distinguishes it from gristle, remains in the form of ash. Bone-ash furnishes phosphorus by a certain process. See Phosphorus. Diluted muriatic acid will take up the phosphate of lime of bone and leave the gelatin. This mode is recommended for the separation of gelatin from bone.

Bones, when carbonized in the same manner as wood, furnish what is called bone-black, but commonly known by the name of ivory-black. It is nothing more than animal charcoal.

In Pyrotechny, bone, in the form of raspings, is employed to communicate a lustre to the flame of gunpowder; but, for this purpose, the most compact, and that, which contains the least gelatin, is usually employed. Hence ivory is preferred. Ivory, in the form of raspings, communicates to flame a bright silver colour; and, on that account, is preferred to all other kinds of bone. The compositions, into which it enters, will be mentioned in a subsequent part of the work.

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Ivory is the tusk, or tooth of defence, of the male elephant, and is an intermediate substance between bone and horn, not capable of being softened by fire. The finest and whitest ivory comes from the island of Ceylon. The tooth of the sea-horse is said to approach to ivory, properly so called. It is, however, harder, and, for that reason, preferred by dentists for making artificial teeth. The coal of ivory is remarkably black; but the so called ivory-black, sold in the shops, is nothing else than bone-black.

Bone and ivory may be stained of various colours. One hundred parts of ivory contain,

One hundred parts of ox-bone gave

Berzelius, however, detected in bone-fluate of lime, muriate of soda, and uncombined soda. Albumen is most generally present. One hundred parts of bone are reduced by calcination to sixty-three. One hundred parts of human bone afforded Berzelius 81.9 phosphate of lime, 3 fluate of lime, 10 lime, 1.1 phosphate of magnesia, 2 soda, and 2 carbonic acid.

Sec. LIV. Of Galbanum.

Galbanum is a gum-resin, obtained from the bubon galbanum, a plant peculiar to Africa. It is at first a juicy fluid, which exudes when the plant is cut above the root, and hardens by exposure to the air. Alcohol dissolves about three-fifths of it. It contains some volatile oil.

The only instance we know of, in which galbanum has been used in fire-works, is in the composition of rain-fire, employed as an incendiary, before the present fire-stones were invented. The rain-fire, which may be found in the fourth part of this work, it is said, gave rise to the composition of fire-stone. There is no advantage, however, in using galbanum for this purpose; since pitch, tar, turpentine, and many other substances are more inflammable, and, therefore, better adapted for such compositions. We mention it merely because it was one of the ingredients in that once celebrated incendiary preparation, the fire-rain of Siemienowicz.

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Sec. LV. Of Tow and Hemp.

In military fire-works, tow and hemp are much used, and principally for the preparation of incendiary works. Both tow and hemp are employed in forming match. Although old rope, &c. are used for immersion in the tourteaux, carcass, or fire-stone composition, which is readily imbibed, if the rope is untwisted and beaten; yet tow or hemp is a better material, and receives more of the composition. The manner of using it may be seen by referring to the composition for fire-stone. For very nice purposes, the tow or hemp should be well dressed. Flax is, therefore, to be preferred in such cases.

Sec. LVI. Of Blue Vitriol.

Different preparations of copper are used in fire-works, to communicate colour to the flame; and besides copper filings, brass filings, verdigris, and the oxides of copper, the sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol, has been employed. We may observe here, that there are three sub-species of this salt; the bisulphate, sulphate, and sub-sulphate, the first properly speaking being the blue vitriol of commerce.

The sulphate, although recommended in some of the old formulæ for coloured fire, is not, however, preferable to some other preparations of copper. The use and application of copper, and its preparations, will be seen in the article on coloured fire.

When sulphate of copper is heated, it is converted into a bluish-white powder. If the heat be increased, the acid is expelled, and the black oxide of copper remains. Before it is used, it is exposed to heat to expel the water of crystallization. It ought to be in the state of impalpable powder. It is composed of 33 acid, 32 oxide, and 35 water. It is decomposed by the alkalies and earths, the alkaline carbonates, borates, and phosphates, and several metallic salts.

The oxide may be obtained very readily from this salt, for the purpose of fire-works, by dissolving it in water, and adding a solution of caustic potassa; collecting the precipitate, and drying it in a moderate heat. This will expel the water that may be contained in it; as metallic precipitates, made in this way, are more or less in the state of hydrates.

When metallic copper is required, it may be obtained in fine powder, and very expeditiously, by immersing a plate of iron in a solution of any of the salts of copper, as the sul[223]phate. It will precipitate on the iron, and gradually fall to the bottom of the vessel. This metallic copper will be found to be much more impalpable than the filings, however fine, and, for that reason, may be mixed more accurately with different substances.

Copper burns with a beautiful green flame, and deposites a loose greenish-gray oxide. The ammonia-oxalate of copper, of which there are three sub-species, burns with flame.

Sec. LVII. Of Nitrate of Copper.

This preparation of copper is used in some fire-works. It communicates a green colour to flame. When combined with carbonaceous substances, the combustion is vivid. This is owing to the decomposition of the nitric acid, (in the same manner as the acid of nitrate of potassa and other nitrates is decomposed), during which carbonic acid and deutoxide of azote are produced. Nitrate of copper has been more particularly recommended for the preparation of match stick, similar to that of M. Cadet, and of match rope. It is used in the same manner as the nitrate of lead. M. Proust used it in lieu of nitrate of lead when repeating some experiments of M. Born. It is more expensive than the acetate, or even the nitrate of lead. Its effect, however, is the same.

Nitrate of copper attracts the moisture of the atmosphere, and deliquesces. Acetate of lead, on the contrary, by exposure to the air gradually effloresces, and in time is decomposed. The preparations of lead, for that reason, are preferable to the nitrate of copper.

Nitrate of copper is formed by dissolving copper in nitric acid; and, when the acid is saturated, the requisite quantity of water may be added. The salt may be obtained in a dry state by evaporation; and, after being dissolved in water, the wood or rope may be soaked in it.

Dry nitrate of copper, wrapped up in tin-foil, will produce no action; but, if water be added, sufficient to moisten it, and then the foil closed tightly, combustion will take place. The water promotes chemical action by dissolving the nitrate of copper, which is then decomposed by the tin, and the quantity of caloric, put in a distributable state, is sufficient to inflame the tin. The details of the rationale will be given hereafter.

The ammonia-nitrate of copper is fulminating copper. The chlorate of copper is a deflagrating salt. Ammonia added to nitrate of copper, first separates an oxide, and then[224] dissolves it. It is more than probable, that nitrate of ammonia causes the ammonia-nitrate to explode.

Sec. LVIII. Of Strontia.

The earth called strontia or strontian, is found abundantly in different parts of the world, in combination with carbonic and sulphuric acids. The carbonate of strontia or strontianite, effervesces with acids, and burns with a purple flame. It contains about 60 or 70 per cent. of earth. The sulphate of strontia, or celestine, contains about 57 of strontia.

When carbonate of strontia is mixed with charcoal powder, and exposed to a heat of 140° of Wedgwood's pyrometer, the carbonic acid will be expelled, and pure strontia remain. The earth may be obtained in a pure state, by dissolving the carbonate in nitric acid, and evaporating the solution until it crystallizes, and exposing the crystals, in a crucible, to a red heat, until the nitric acid is driven off. If the carbonate cannot be had, the sulphate may be employed. For this purpose, it is to be pulverized and mixed with an equal weight of carbonate of potassa, and boiled in water. The carbonate of strontia, thus obtained, which exists in the form of a powder, is to be treated with nitric acid as already described.

Strontia, like the other earths, is a compound body, having a metallic basis, called strontium, which, united with oxygen, forms the earth.

The specific gravity of strontia approaches that of barytes. Like pure barytes, it is soluble in water, forming strontia water. It requires rather more than 160 parts of water at 60° to dissolve it; but much less of boiling water.

The solution of strontia in water, when evaporated, will crystallize in thin, transparent, quadrangular plates, generally parallelograms, seldom exceeding a quarter of an inch in length. These crystals contain about 68 per cent. of water; and are soluble in little more than twice their weight of boiling water, and in 54.4 times their weight of water at 60°. When dissolved in alcohol, they give a blood-red colour to its flame. The solution of strontia changes vegetable blues to green. Strontia differs from barytes in being infusible, much less soluble, of a different form, weaker in its affinities, and not poisonous.

The metallic base of strontia, which was discovered by Sir H. Davy, in 1808, when exposed to the air, or when thrown[225] into water, rapidly absorbs oxygen, and is converted into strontia.

As strontia communicates a red colour to flame, it has been used in certain compositions of artificial fire. The brilliant red fire, sometimes used in theatres, owes its colour to this earth. See Theatrical fire-works. Muriate and nitrate of strontia will give a red or purple colour to the flame of alcohol. See coloured flame of alcohol.

If a piece of cloth be dipped in a solution of muriate, nitrate, or acetate of strontia, or in strontia water, and then immersed in alcohol, it will burn with a red flame.

M. Fourcroy, (Système des Connaissances Chimiques, &c. tome iii,) mentions the use of nitrate and muriate of strontia, in artificial fire-works, for the purpose of communicating a red colour to the flame of combustible bodies. Since that time, the nitrate, in particular, has been recommended and used.

One of the characters of the salts of strontia, is, that they give a red flame to burning bodies; whereas the salts of barytes or of lime, used in the same manner, communicate a yellow flame.

The saline combinations of strontia were examined with particular attention by Dr. Hope. See Edinburg Philosoph. Transactions for 1790.

Nitrate of strontia may be formed by dissolving carbonate of strontia, or the sulphuret obtained by decomposing the sulphate by charcoal, in nitric acid, filtering the solution, evaporating it, and suffering it to crystallize.

Nitrate of strontia deflagrates on ignited coals. Dr. Hope pointed out, that if nitrate of strontia be exposed to a red heat, and a combustible substance be, at this time, brought in contact with it, a deflagration, with a very vivid red flame, will be produced. When a crystal of this salt is put into the wick of a candle, it communicates a beautiful purple flame. It does not deliquesce in the air, and, therefore, the compositions, into which it enters, cannot spoil on that account. Nicholson (Chemical Dictionary,) observes, that nitrate of strontia may be used in the art of pyrotechny. For this purpose, however, it is mixed with sulphur, chlorate of potassa, and sulphuret of antimony; and sometimes with the addition of sulphuret of arsenic and charcoal, as in the red fire for theatrical uses.

The muriate of strontia has similar properties. Davy first observed, that when strontia was heated in chlorine gas, it gave out oxygen gas, and a chloride of strontium was formed.

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Muriate of strontia is formed very readily, by dissolving the carbonate or sulphuret of strontia in muriatic acid, and evaporating the solution in order to obtain crystals. These crystals are very soluble in water. They are soluble, also, in twenty-four times their weight of pure alcohol, at the temperature of 60°. This alcoholic solution, we remarked, burns with a fine purple colour. These crystals suffer no change when exposed to the air, except they be very moist; in which case, they deliquesce. When heated, they first undergo the watery fusion, and are then reduced to a white powder. Fourcroy recommends the muriate of strontia for fire-works.

Carbonate of strontia, when thrown in powder on burning coals, produces red sparks.

Acetate of strontia, another salt used in fire-works, is formed by dissolving strontia, or its carbonate, in acetic acid. It will crystallize. The crystals are not affected by exposure to the air. When heated, its acid is decomposed, as happens to all the other acetates.

Sec. LIX. Of Boracic Acid.

Borate of soda, or borax, is a salt, which has long been known, and is used chiefly in the arts as a flux for the fusion of bodies, and for soldering. Boracic acid is a compound body, consisting of a newly discovered substance, called boron, and oxygen. Homberg obtained the acid from borax in 1702, by distilling a mixture of borax, and sulphate of iron. He supposed that it was a product of the latter; and hence it was called the volatile narcotic salt of vitriol, or sedative salt.

Boracic acid forms two salts with soda; the borate, properly so called, and borax. It is supposed to be our borax, that Pliny mentions under the name crysocolla, so called by the ancients. Others, however, assert, that their crysocolla was nothing more than the rust of copper, triturated with urine. The impure borax in the East Indies, is called tincal. When borax is melted, and exposed for some time to heat, it loses its water, and is changed into what is known by the name of calcined borax.

The easiest process for obtaining boracic acid is to make a concentrated solution of borax in hot water, and add by degrees, sulphuric acid, which will unite with the soda; and, as the fluid cools, the boracic acid will separate in shining laminated crystals. No more acid should be added than is[227] sufficient to make the solution slightly sour. The crystals are to be washed with cold water, and drained upon brown paper.

One of the principal characters of boracic acid is, that it is very soluble in alcohol, to the flame of which it communicates a green colour. Paper dipped in this solution, burns in the same manner.

In consequence of this property of imparting a green colour to flame, I made some experiments with it, for the purpose of preparing green fire; and found, that, by employing it in the proportion of one-eighth, the flame was always green, provided that the flame of the combustible used, was not tinged of any other colour. Nitre, charcoal, and boracic acid will give a green; also nitre, lamp oil, and boracic acid; nitre, alcohol, and boracic acid, along with charcoal; and chlorate of potassa, charcoal, and boracic acid, with or without the addition of alcohol. But, although boracic acid communicates a lively green, its expense will prevent its use in that way, especially as many other preparations, as those of copper, will have the same effect, and are more economical on account of their price. See the Coloured Flame of Alcohol, and Coloured Fire.

Oils, when assisted by heat, will dissolve boracic acid. In naphtha, it is very soluble. With oils, it yields fluid and solid products, which give a green colour to the flame of alcohol. It is not a combustible acid, but only imparts colour to the flame of combustible bodies.

Boron will unite with fluorine, the radical of fluoric acid. When one part of vitrified boracic acid, two of fluate of lime or fluor spar, and twelve of sulphuric acid are distilled, an acid gas will be obtained, called fluo-boric gas. For the properties of boron, consult Thenard's Traité de Chimie.

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PART II.

INSTRUMENTS, TOOLS, AND UTENSILS.

CHAPTER I.

OF THE LABORATORY.

The laboratory for pyrotechny may consist of a building, furnished with furnaces, boilers, &c. for the preparation or refining of saltpetre, and other substances for use; but according to its present acceptation, it is a place where all kinds of fire-works are prepared, both for actual service and for exhibition; such as, besides the ordinary works for show, quick matches, fuses, port-fire, grape-shot, case-shot, carcasses, hand granades, cartridges, &c. It should have tables, benches, and closets, where the tools, paper, thread, &c. may be commodiously placed, and an adjoining room to contain a supply of materials for two days' work.

The chief artificer takes the weight of the materials made use of, attends to the weighing of the different substances, and sees that the mixtures are made properly, &c. He also keeps an account of the number and kinds of fire-works. The prepared fire-works ought to be removed daily to the magazine. If they are made up in the field, under a tent, (denominated the Laboratory tent,) they should be packed in barrels or in caissons.

Sec. I. Of Laboratory Tools and Utensils.

The following constitute the furniture and equipments of a laboratory:

• Copper rods, to load port fires, and the fuses of shells, howitzers, &c.
• Wooden formers, on which to roll the paper cases of the port fires.
• Wooden formers, to roll the cases of rockets.
• Balances, large and small, with weights, &c.
• Buckets to carry water.
• Boxes for loading priming tubes.
• Barrels with leather tops, that draw, in order to keep grained and meal gunpowder.
• Rods, or rammers for charging rockets.
• [229] Brushes to wipe the tables and sweep the compositions together.
• Frames to dry priming tubes.
• Copper calibers to regulate the size of priming tubes.
• Penknives.
• Needles for piercing priming tubes in the direction of their length.
• Fuse drivers.
• Coopers' adzes.
• A copper kettle.
• Scissors for cloth and paper.
• Paper cutters.
• Priming wires.
• Skimmers for skimming the froth of boiling saltpetre.
• Funnels for charging port-fires, howitzers, shells, &c.
• Square ruler.
• Fuses for shells, &c. (or a lathe to make them.)
• Large and small wooden bowls.
• Small axes.
• Ladles for charging the fuses of shells, port-fires, &c.
• Mallets to hammer the fuses.
• Glue pots and brushes.
• Heavy mallets to beat the powder.
• Tin measures, of different sizes.
• Hand mortar.
• Foot rules.
• Rat-tail files to cleanse the interior of the reeds of priming tubes.
• Wooden rasps.
• Iron rulers, ¹/₂ foot long.
• Leather bags, in which gunpowder and charcoal are reduced to powder.
• Pocket saws.
• Pallet knives for saltpetre.
• Tables, small ones to mix the composition; large ones with a ledge to meal the powder on.
• Sieves, fine and common; of silk, and of hair.
• Fuse drawers.
• Tools for rolling cartridges.
• Gimblets of different sizes.

The materials required more particularly for military fire-works, are:

• Gunpowder.
• Saltpetre.
• Sulphur.
• Charcoal.
• [230] Camphor.
• Beeswax.
• Glue, rosin.
• Cotton yarn for quick match.
• Brandy or other spirits.
• Gum arabic.
• Linseed oil.
• Spirits of turpentine.
• Pitch.
• Reeds or quills for priming fuses.
• Mutton tallow.
• Vinegar.
• Thread for tying quick match.
• Cartridge paper.
• Thread, tow and spun yarn, to make match rope.
• Cordage, to make tourteaux.
• Flour to make paste.

The characters used to express certain substances employed in fire-works, are the following: (James's Mil. Dict. p. 101.)

Sec. II. Of Mandrils and Cylinders for forming Cartridges and Cases.

The rollers or rods, on which cartridges are formed, ought to be solid, and perfectly straight and round. Very dry, sound wood should be selected, and when turned, the rod should be perfectly cylindrical; one extremity being concave, and the other convex.

Mandrils may be made of copper, which is preferable to wood, as this is apt to warp and crack; and in both cases, should be longer than the cartridge, so as to be drawn out easily. They are of different lengths and diameters, according to their respective uses.

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Sec. III. Of Rammers, Chargers, and Mallets.

The rammers which are used for compression, are cylindrical like the preceding. They have a head much larger in dimensions than the part that enters the tube. (See A, B, C, D, and E of Fig. 1. in the Plate). Besides being made of wood, which should be of the hardest kind, as lignum vitæ, they may be formed of copper or brass. In this case, they are first cast of the requisite size and shape, and finished in a lathe. Wooden heads are sometimes put to them, but with little advantage; as they frequently split and require to be renewed.

The wooden rammer may be struck with metal; but when the rammer is of copper or brass, wooden mallets must be always employed.

We may here remark, that in charging rockets, it has been customary to employ several rammers. The first drift must be six diameters from the handle, and this, as well as all other rammers, ought to be a little thinner than the former, to prevent the tearing of the paper, when the charge is driven in. In the end of this rammer is a hole to fit over the piercer. (See B. Fig. 1.) The line marked on this rammer, as will be explained hereafter, when it appears at the top of the case, indicates that a second rammer must be used. This second rammer, from the handle, is four diameters, having a hole for the piercer, 1¹/₂ diameters long. (C. Fig. 1.) When the case is filled as high as the top of the piercer, a short and solid drift is used. (E. Fig. 1.).

Rammers must have a ferrule, or collar of brass at the bottom, to keep the wood from spreading, or splitting. With regard to the handles of the rammers, if their diameter be equal to the bore of the mould, and two diameters long, the proportion is a good one. The shorter they can be used, the better. The longer the drift, the less of course, will be the pressure on the composition, by the blow given by the mallet.

We may observe here, that rockets may either be driven over a piercer, or driven solid, and afterwards bored.

As much of the effect of rockets depends upon the manner they are driven, whether lightly or compactly, or uniformly throughout, circumstances which affect their quality; it is necessary, in using the rammer, to employ an equal force for driving the composition. The mallet, therefore, should be of a given weight; and a certain number of strokes with the same force, on each new charge, must be accurately fol[232]lowed, until the driving is completed; taking care, at the same time, that the rocket stands firm on a solid body.

Dry beech is the best wood for mallets. A writer very judiciously observes, in the Encyclopedia Britannica, (vol. xv, 695), that, if a person uses a mallet of a moderate size, in proportion to the rocket, according to his judgment, and if the rocket succeeds, he may depend on the rest, by using the same mallet; yet it will be necessary, that cases of different sorts, be driven with mallets of different sizes. In all cases, under one ounce, the charge may be rammed with an ounce mallet.

There is an advantage, also, by having the handle of the mallet turned out of the same piece as the head, and made in a cylindrical form. If their dimensions are regulated by the diameters of the rockets; then, for example, if the thickness of the head be three diameters, and its length four, the length of the handle will be five diameters, whose thickness must be in proportion to the hand.

Bigot (Artifice de Guerre, p. 118) speaking of the flying fuses, or sky-rockets, observes, that the mallet used for driving the composition, is proportionably large, according to the rockets, and that it is five inches in length, and four in breadth, when the diameter of the rocket is from 12 to 18 lines. The mallets for larger rockets are stronger and heavier, and, in some instances, where a great force is required, as in driving war-rockets, a machine similar to the pile-engine, is used. See Congreve Rockets.

Sec. IV. Of Utensils necessary for constructing of Signal Rockets.

A detailed account of the tools used in making signal rockets, may be seen in Ruggeri, Pyrotechny, p. 143; but M. Bigot has enumerated them as follows:

• One mandril for forming the cartridge, or case.
• One pair of curved compasses to determine the exterior diameter.
• Three conical mandrils. (See fig. 3, plate.)
• One solid, or massive cylinder.
• One mould for garnishing.
• Two moulds for the capitals, or heads, one of which is for the rockets with, and the other for the rockets without, the garnish, or furniture.
• One piercer and block (See plate, fig. 1, I & H.)
• [233] One scoop.
• One punch.
• One mallet.
• One press.
• One large knife.
• One pair of scissors.

All the wooden utensils ought to be made of hard and sound wood, without knots. The rammers should be furnished with rings or ferrules, and the first bored with a hole of sufficient length to receive the piercer. The second should be bored deep enough to receive two-thirds of the piercer, and the third, to receive one-third, while the fourth should be solid. These rammers are all furnished with heads. (See section iii.)

Sec. V. Of the Rolling, or Plane Board.

This board is furnished with a handle, and is used for rolling rocket cases, &c. and is of different dimensions, according to its application. It is made of hard wood, such as oak or walnut.

When the paper is wrapped round the mandril or former, the rolling board is used to compress the paper, and make it round and smooth.

Sec. VI. Of the Driver for charging large Rockets.

This contrivance is similar to a pile driver in construction; and, by means of a weight falling upon the rammer, the charge is sent home with great force. Its use is confined to the largest kind of rockets.

Sec. VII. Of Mortars and Pestles.

Mortars are employed for the pulverization of substances, and, according to their use, may be either of wood, marble, brass, or cast-iron, which last costs less than the others. Large mortars have covers, in order to confine the finer particles. The pestles should be of very hard wood; because, in that case, no danger would be apprehended of an explosion of the materials, an occurrence which might take place, if iron were used. This, however, depends on the substances submitted to the pestle.

Sec. VIII. Of the Choaker or Strangler.

The choaker is nothing more than a contrivance, usually[234] made of rope, by which the closing of the end of the rocket is effected, so as to form a kind of cup or mouth.

Sec. IX. Of the Table and Sack for mealing Gunpowder.

This table may be either square or an octagon, and made of hard wood. There is a rim, a few inches high, raised round it, and a gutter at one end to allow the powder to pass out, when the operation is finished. See plate, fig. 7 and 8.

This mode of mealing powder is by no means to be preferred. (See Gunpowder.)

A sack is also used for crushing powder. It should be made of strong elastic leather, and sewed together in such a manner as to prevent the impalpable powder from passing through its seams. They are of an oblong shape, and contain from 20 to 25 pounds. Fifteen pounds are generally put in at a time. This method of crushing powder is preferred, as it is less liable to accidents. It is hardly necessary to add, that the bag is beaten with a cylindrical stick.

Sec. X. Of Sieves.

There are several kinds of sieve. The common sieve has neither a cover nor a receiver, and may be either formed of horse hair, or of brass or copper wire. It is necessary to have some sieves of a finer kind. For this purpose, silk and gauze are generally used. The cover is merely leather, fixed in a frame, which fits on the top. The receiver is formed nearly in the same manner, having a skin stretched over a frame, which fits on the under part of the sieve.

Sec. XI. Of the Paper Press.

A press, for the purpose of pressing paper, is formed of two pieces of wood, which are brought together by means of one, or several screws. This press is sometimes, though seldom, used. If pasteboard is made, when it cannot be had ready prepared, then the press is actually necessary. The intention is to unite the several sheets, which have been pasted, by using the pressure of the screw, and to remove any extraneous paste, so that the paper may have no inequalities on its surface. In lieu of the screw-press, heavy weights laid on the paper for several hours, will answer the same purpose.

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CHAPTER II.

Preliminary operations in the preparation of fire-works, and observations on the preservation of gunpowder, and sundry manipulations.

Sec. I. Of the Workshop.

We have already noticed the principal furniture of a laboratory, and, therefore, can add nothing new on this head. There are, however, some utensils employed for particular works, which we may here describe.

In the disposition of the workshop, the tables, utensils, &c. are arranged, according as the judgment may dictate for convenience and use. Care must be taken to prevent the access of fire, and to prevent, as far as possible, the presence of moisture. Lanterns, if light is required, are always to be preferred; but the best manner of communicating light is through a window, placing the lights outside of the building, or apartment, as is done in powder mills. Other precautions may be necessary, which will readily suggest themselves.

In conducting the work, the workmen are to be so arranged, as that, while some are employed in the preliminary operations, others are making and finishing the preparations. The compositions may be ready prepared, and well preserved in jars or other vessels. This is named by the French, Cabinet de composition. It is a place, also, where the substances are weighed, and mixed.

Sec. II. Of the Magazine.

The magazine is a place of deposite for gunpowder, to preserve it from fire, and moisture. We have already mentioned the preservation of gunpowder in the article on that subject; but it may not be improper to offer some remarks, respecting the construction of magazines.

Authors differ in opinion, both in regard to their situation and construction; but they all agree, that they ought to be arched, and bomb-proof. The first powder magazines were made with gothic arches: Vauban constructed them in a semicircular form, to make them stronger. Their dimensions were, sixty feet long, within, and twenty-five broad. The foundations were eight or nine feet thick, and eight feet high, to the spring of the arch. The floors were two feet from the ground, for the purpose of keeping the magazine free from dampness.

[236]

It is observed, that the centres of semicircular arches will settle at the crown, and their sinking must break the cement. A remedy was applied for this inconvenience, by the arch of equilibration, as described in Hutton's work on bridges. As, in powder magazines, the ill effect of the breaking of the cement is particularly felt, Mr. Hutton proposed to find an arch of equilibration for them in particular, and to construct it, when the span is twenty feet, the pitch or height, ten, (which are the same dimensions as the semicircle), the inclined exterior walls at top, forming an angle of 113 degrees, and the height of their angular point, above the top of the arch, equal to seven feet.

A wall built round a magazine, gives it an additional security. The roof should be slated, or covered with lead or copper, and it ought to be furnished with a lightning rod, placed ten or fifteen yards from the building. The points of the rods may be either gilt, or of solid gold. Silver, however, is generally used; but, above all, platinum is to be preferred. The advantage of these points is, that they do not rust like iron, or become oxidized, an occurrence which would diminish their powers as conductors of the electric fluid.

To prevent the access of moisture, or rather to absorb it, some have recommended the inner walls to be covered with a composition of powdered coal, &c. Lining of magazines with sheet lead, appears to have some advantages.

St. Pierre observes, that a Prussian officer informed him, that, having remarked that vapour was attracted by lead, he had employed it for drying the atmosphere of a powder magazine, constructed under ground, in the throat of a bastion, rendered useless from its humidity. He ordered the concave ceiling of the arch to be lined with lead, where the gunpowder was deposited in barrels: the vapour of the wall collected in drops on the leaden roof, ran off, and left the gunpowder barrels perfectly dry.

Sec. III. Of the Driving or Ramming of Sky-rockets.

We purpose in the present article to give some general directions for the driving of rockets.

Rockets may be driven solid, or over a piercer. In the latter case, they must not have so much composition put in them at a time. The piercer, accompanying a greater part of the bore of the case, would cause the rammer to rise too high; so that the pressure of it would not be so great on the composition, nor would it be driven equally. For rockets[237] rammed over a piercer, let the ladle, or copper scoop, hold as much composition, as, when driven, will raise the drift one-half the interior diameter of the case; and, for those driven solid, let it contain as much as will raise the drift one-half the exterior diameter of the case. Ladles are generally made to go easily into the case, and the length of the scoop is about one and a half of its own diameter.

The charge of rockets must always be driven one diameter above the piercer, and, on it, must be rammed, one-third of a diameter of clay; through the middle of which a small hole must be bored to the composition, so that, when the charge is burnt to the top, it may communicate its fire, through the hole, to the stars in the head. (See plate, fig. 14.) Great care must be taken to strike, with the mallet, with an equal force, giving the same number of strokes to each ladleful of composition; otherwise the rocket will not rise with a uniform motion, or burn equally and regularly, for which reason, they cannot carry a proper tail. It will break, in this case, before the rocket has ascended to its extreme height, where the rocket should break and disperse the stars, rain, or whatever is contained in the head. When in the act of ramming, the drift or driver must be kept constantly turning or moving; and when the hollow rammers are used, the composition is to be knocked out every now and then, or the piercer will split them. To a rocket of four ounces, give to each ladleful of charge, 16 strokes; to a rocket of 1 lb. 28; to a 2 pounder, 36; to a 4 pounder, 42; to a 6 pounder, 56. But rockets of a larger sort cannot be driven by hand, and must be rammed with a machine similar to a pile-driver.

The method of ramming wheel cases, or any other sort, in which the charge is driven solid, is much the same as that used for sky-rockets; for the same proportion may be observed in the ladle, and the same number of strokes given, according to their diameters, all cases being distinguished by their diameters. In this manner, a case, whose bore is equal to that of a rocket of four ounces, is called a four ounce case; and one which is equal, in bore, to an eight ounce rocket, an eight ounce case, &c. The method of ramming cases, without moulds, will answer for strong pasted cases, and save the expense of making so many moulds. In filling any case, it must be placed on a perpendicular block of wood, in order to keep it firm and solid; otherwise the composition would be rammed unequally.

When cases are to be filled without moulds, procure some nipples, made of brass or iron, in proportion to the cases, to[238] screw or fix in the top of the driving block. When the nipple is fixed in, make, at about one and half inches from it, a square hole in the block, six inches deep, and one inch in diameter. Then have a piece of wood, six inches longer than the case intended to be filled, and two inches square. On one side of it, cut a groove, almost the length of the case, whose breadth and depth must be sufficient to cover near one-half the case. Then cut the other end, to fit the hole in the block; but take care to cut it, so that the groove may be at a proper distance from the nipple. This half mould being made, and fixed tight in the block, cut, in another piece of wood, nearly of the same length as the case, a groove of the same dimensions as that in the fixed piece. Then put the case on the nipple, and, with the cord, tie it, and the two half moulds together; and the case will be prepared for filling. The dimensions of the above half moulds are proportionable for cases of eight ounces; but they differ in size in proportion to the cases.

Sec. IV. Of the Boring of Rockets.

The machine, for boring rockets, is similar, in some respects, to a lathe. The rocket is confined in a box, and, by means of a wheel, which is made to turn a second one, an auger rammer is put in motion. The rammer must be of a size, proportionate to the rocket, and of the same diameter, as the top of the bore intended, and continue of that thickness, a little longer than the depth of the bore required. The thick end of each rammer must be made square, and all of the same size. The rammer is made to move backward, and forward, so that, after the rammer is marked three and a half diameters of the rocket, from the point, set the guide, allowing for the thickness of the front of the rocket box, and the neck and mouth of the rocket. When the rocket is fixed in the box, it must be pushed forward against the rammer, and, when the scoop of the rammer is full, draw the box back, and knock out the composition. A little oil is sometimes used, to prevent the friction from setting fire to the rocket. Having bored a number of rockets, taps must be used. These taps are similar to the common spicket. When employed, it is necessary to mark them three and a half diameters from the point, allowing for the thickness of the rocket's neck.

There are several contrivances for the boring of rockets. The operation is sometimes done, by confining the rocket in[239] a box, and boring it with a borer, fixed in a brace, using, at the same time, a proper director. This brace is like the common brace, used by carpenters, or formed on that principle, and made of iron. The motion, given by the hand, performs the operation.

Sec. V. Of the Preservation of Steel or Iron Filings.

When treating of iron, we mentioned, that it has the property of oxidizing rapidly, when exposed to the air and moisture; and that its effects in fire-works, in that case, would be either destroyed, or considerably diminished. And even fire-works, in which iron enters as a component part, will, if kept long, lose some of their effect, in consequence of the change, which the iron suffers; for, instead of producing brilliant sparks, which is their intention, it would impart a dull red appearance.

Two methods are recommended for the preservation of iron. The one is to melt a portion of sulphur, and throw the filings into it, and afterwards to separate the extraneous sulphur. The other consists in wrapping them up in oiled paper. As to the first method, we may apprehend the effect of the sulphur, combining with some of the iron, instead of coating it, forming thereby a sulphuret, which, besides, is readily decomposed by the contact of air and moisture, producing sulphate of iron. The second method, of wrapping them in oil, or, in fact, covering them with oil, is certainly a greater preventive from rust, for where the oil is in contact, no oxidizement can take place.

There are several methods recommended to preserve iron-work from rusting. The use of paint and varnish for this purpose is familiar. In Sweden, they cover iron-work with a mixture of pitch, tar, and wood soot, which acquires a gloss, similar to that of varnish, and is said to prevent the oxidizement of the metal very effectually. Fat-oil varnish, mixed with four-fifths of rectified spirit of turpentine, has been recommended. It is applied with a brush, or sponge. Articles, varnished with this preparation, are said to retain their metallic brilliancy, and never contract any spots of rust. Another composition, for the same purpose, is highly recommended. It consists in applying a mixture of one pound of hogs' lard, free from salt, one ounce of camphor, two drachms of black lead in powder, and two drachms of dragon's blood. At Sheffield and Birmingham, sundry articles, made of steel and iron, are preserved from rust, when sent to foreign mar[240]kets, by wrapping them in coarse brown paper, prepared first with oil.

Among the different preparations, recommended at various times to prevent iron from contracting rust, we may mention one, which has been used with success, and which gives a lead colour. It is nothing more than taking some litharge, and heating it in an iron pot, and scattering over it some sulphur. The litharge will change its colour, forming a kind of sulphuret of lead, which is then ground with drying oil, and applied like paint. We are told, that this preparation gets remarkably hard, and resists the weather more effectually than any other lead colour.

Sec. VI. Of the making of Wheels and other Works incombustible.

It is usual to give a coat of paint to the wood-work of wheels, &c. which are designed to carry a number of cases. To prevent their taking fire, paint, in some measure, has the effect. The following composition is recommended: Take brick dust, coal-ashes, and iron filings, of each an equal quantity, and mix them with a double size, made hot. Apply this to the wood, and when dry, give it another coat.

Several methods have been adopted for the same purpose; but wood may be made to resist, in a great degree, the action of fire, and rendered almost incombustible, by soaking it in a solution of the supersulphate of potassa and alumina, (alum), in sulphate of iron, (green vitriol), and in other salts, which are incombustible.

With respect to the use of alum as a preservative against fire, it is certain, that, although its use in this way is very ancient, it was not often recommended; for writers on the art of war, such, for example, as Anas, mentions the use of vinegar, in the following quotation from his Poliorcet. cap. 24: "Majus juverit, si prius ligna aceto linantur; nam a materia aceto illita, ignis abstinet."

The use of alum, to prevent substances from taking fire, is not a new invention; notwithstanding we find it recommended in modern works, not only for wood, but also for paper, and linen and cotton dresses, &c. Aulus Gellius relates, that Archelaus, one of the generals of Mithridates, washed over a wooden tower with a solution of alum, and thereby rendered it so much proof against fire, that all Sylla's attempts to set it in flames proved abortive.

A writer in the Anthologia Hibernica, vol. iii, for 1794, [241] observes, that the use of alum to prevent the action of fire, on wood, or other combustible bodies, is not new, and those, who lay claim, are not entitled to originality on that head.

Another mode to prevent wood from taking fire may also be adopted. It consists in mixing together, one ounce of sulphur, one ounce of red ochre, and six ounces of green vitriol. The wood work is covered with joiners' glue, and the mixture is then put over it. This process is to be repeated three or four times, allowing the glue to dry before a new coat is applied.

There are several other preparations for the same purpose, not only for the covering of wood, but also paper. But M. Ruggeri is of opinion, that they cannot be depended upon, when used on paper; for the paper will, in part, be consumed. The formula for one of these compositions, is thus given by that gentleman: To a pound of flour, mix a handful of powdered alum, and add to it strong glue-water, and bring it to a proper consistence with clay. Flour and glue-water, mixed together, with the addition of a small quantity of muriate of soda, (common salt), is also recommended for the same purpose. Wood, steeped in a solution of common salt, so as to be thoroughly impregnated with it, is very difficult of combustion. In Persia, salt is used to prevent timber from the attack of worms. The practice of salting ship timber is highly recommended.

Wood, in fact, may be rendered incombustible by several processes, some of which we have given. Earl Stanhope, among others, made some interesting experiments on this subject.[23]

Having thus given some of the modes, usually adopted to render wood incombustible, or to prevent its taking fire so instantaneously, we purpose to add some remarks respecting the processes for colouring it. An excellent[242] preservation against moisture, which communicates a colour at the same time, is formed of 12 lbs of rosin, 3 lbs of sulphur, and 12 pints of whale oil, melted and mixed with a sufficient quantity of red or yellow ochre, and applied by means of a brush. Pulverized black lead may be substituted for the ochre. Several coats of this mixture may be put on, allowing each coat to dry before another is applied. This composition is particularly well adapted for wheel work, &c. and for aquatic fire-works. Chaptal advises, for the same purpose, a mixture of equal parts of white turpentine, bees' wax, and maltha, or, in the place of maltha, coal tar. Wood, covered with three coats of this composition, and immersed for two years in water, was found to be quite dry. It would be well, however, to cover it with some of the preparation, to render wood incombustible.

With respect to the staining of wood of various colours, several preparations may be used. To communicate a green colour, a hot solution of acetate of copper may be used; or verdigris, alum, and vinegar, boiled together. A decoction of brazil wood, with alum and cream of tartar, will impart a red; indigo, dissolved in sulphuric acid, (liquid blue dye), a blue; a decoction of logwood, nut-galls, and copperas, a black; a solution of dragon's blood, or of alkanet wood, in turpentine, a mahogany colour, &c. The imitation of bronze on wood may be effected, by covering it first with isinglass size, then suffering it to dry, and putting on a coat of oil gold size, and covering it with bronze powder, a preparation sold for that purpose. A solution of aloes in spirits, which communicates a greenish-black, is a great preservative of wood against worms.

M. Ollivier (Archives des Découvertes, v, p. 386) has given a variety of recipes for imitating bronze, stone, &c. He recommends the following for the imitation of ancient bronze, which may be applied to wood-work. Melt together 150 lbs of fine sand, 170 lbs of lead ore, (Galena), and 30 lbs of manganese, and add one-sixth part of brass. This compound is then pulverized. It is applied on the usual ground.

Black earth, as it is called, made of green earth, oxide of manganese, oxide of iron, and oxide of copper, is also recommended for covering wood-work. The composition for imitation marble, is 1 part of green earth, ¹/₂ a part of sand, and ¹/₈th of a part of bol. armen. By adding ¹/₁₄th part of yellow burnt copper, the colour will approach to green. The same composition, with ¹/₁₆th part of copper, and ¹/₃₂d iron, will give a black.

[243]

Sec. VII. Of the formation of Rocket, and other Cases.

The cases for rockets, as a general rule, are to be made 6¹/₂ times their exterior diameter in length; and all other cases, that are to be filled in moulds, must be as long as the moulds, within a half of the interior diameter. Rocket cases, from the smallest, to 4 or 6 pounds, are generally made of the strongest sort of cartridge paper, and rolled dry; but the large sort are made of pasted pasteboard. (See observations on that subject.) As it is very difficult to roll the ends of the cases quite even, the best way is to keep a pattern of the paper for the different kinds of cases. These patterns should be longer than the case they are designed for, and the number of sheets required should be marked, which will prevent any paper being cut to waste. Cut the paper of a proper size, and the last sheet for each case, with a slope at one end; so that when the cases are rolled, it may form a spiral line round the outside; and that this slope may always be the same, let the pattern be so formed for a constant guide. Before you begin to roll, fold down one end of the first sheet so far, as that the fold will go two or three times round the former; then, in the double edge, lay the former with its handle off the table, and after rolling two or three turns, lay the next sheet on that which is loose, and roll it all on.

The smoothing board, which is about twenty inches long, is now to be applied; and after rolling the paper three or four times, lay on, in the same manner, another sheet of paper, and smooth it in the same manner. This operation is to be repeated till the case is sufficiently thick. When the last sheet is rolled, we must observe, that the point of the slope is placed at the small end of the roller.

The case being made, the small end of the former is put in, to about one diameter of the end of the case, and the end piece is inserted within a little distance of the former. Then give the pinching cord one turn round the case, between the former and the end piece. At first, pull easy, and keep moving the case, which will make the neck smooth, and without large wrinkles. This operation is called by the French strangling, or choaking. When the cases are hard to choak, let each sheet of paper (except the first and last in that part where the neck is formed) be a little moistened with water. Immediately after you have struck the concave stroke, bind the neck of the case round with small twine,[244] which must not be tied in a knot, but fastened with two or three hitches.

Having thus pinched and tied the case, so as not to give way, put it into the mould without its foot, and, with a small mallet, drive the former hard on the end piece, which will force the neck close and smooth. When this is done, cut the case to its proper length, allowing, from the neck to the edge of the mouth, half a diameter, which is equal to the height of the nipple. Then take out the former, and drive the case over the piercer with the long rammer, and the vent will be of a proper size.

Wheel cases are sometimes driven on a nipple, with a point to close the neck, and make the vent of the size required; which, in most cases, is generally ¹/₄th of their interior diameter. As it is very often difficult, when the cases are rolled, to draw the roller out, a hole must be made in its handle, and a pin, as a purchase, put in.

The machine for pinching cases consists of a treadle, which, when pressed hard with the foot, will act upon a cord, and draw it tight. The cord runs over a small pulley, and is fixed to an upright piece. It is wound once round the case, between the former and end piece; and when the cord is drawn, the case is brought together.

Cases are commonly rolled wet for wheels and fixed pieces; and when they are required to contain a great length of charge, the method of making these cases is thus: The paper must be cut as usual, except the last, which ought not to have a slope. Having it ready, paste each sheet on one side, and then fold down the first sheet as before directed; but be careful that the paste does not touch the upper side of the fold. If the roller be wetted, it will tear the paper in drawing it out. In pasting the last sheet, observe not to wet the last turn or two in that part where it is to be pinched; for if that part be damp, the pinching cord will stick to it, and tear the paper. Therefore, in choaking those cases, roll a bit of dry paper once round the case, before the pinching cord is used. This paper is to be taken off after the operation. The rolling board, and all other methods, according to the former directions for the rolling and pinching of cases, must be used for these, as well as other cases. See Encyclopedia Britannica, vol. xv, p. 692.

Morel, in a practical work, (Traité Practique des Feux d'Artifice) speaking of rocket cases, observes, that the rule is, to give to their thickness, half the interior diameter, or half the diameter of the roller. If the roller, for instance, were[245] half an inch, the case should be ¹/₄th of an inch in thickness. A rocket is divided into three equal parts; two for the interior diameter, and one for the thickness of the case.

As to the length of sky-rockets, it is regulated by the length of the piercer, if they are pierced in the charging. One-third more than this length is allowed for the choak, and the rest, of course, for the composition. With respect to other cases, Morel remarks, that the cases for turning pieces are usually six inches in length, and, for fixed pieces, seven and eight inches. The cases of Roman candles, are of the same thickness as those of rockets. In length they are, as well as the Mosaic candle, fifteen inches. They are choaked and cut.

Those of serpents are made with one or two cards, which are rolled upon a former of wood, or metal, ¹/₄th of an inch in diameter, and four inches in length. When made, the case measures three inches. Dry rolling is considered sufficient for these cases.

The fixed stars are made of common pasteboard, 3¹/₂ inches long, on a mandril, ¹/₂ an inch in diameter. They are pasted with ordinary paste, but mixed with clay, and choaked, and bound as usual.

Sec. VIII. Of Tourbillon Cases.

This kind of case is generally made 8 diameters long; but, if very large, seven will be sufficient. From four ounces to two pounds, will succeed perfectly, but, when larger, there is no certainty. They are best rolled wet with paste, and the last sheet must have a straight edge, so that the case may be all of a thickness. After rolling them in the same manner as wheel cases, pinch them close at one end; then, with a rammer, drive the ends down flat, and, afterwards, ram in about one-third of a diameter of dried clay. The diameter of the former for these cases, must be the same as for sky-rockets. Tourbillons are to be rammed in moulds, without a nipple, or in a mould without its foot. (Ency. Brit.)

Sec. IX. Of Balloon Cases, or Paper Shells.

First, prepare an oval former, turned out of smooth wood; then paste a quantity of brown, or cartridge paper, and let it lie until the paste is quite soaked through. This being done, rub the former with soap or grease, to prevent the paper[246] from sticking to it. Next, lay the paper on in small slips, until you have made it one-third the thickness of the shell intended. Having this done, set it to dry; and when dry, cut it round the middle, and the two halves will easily come off: but, observe, when you cut, to leave about one inch not cut, which will make the halves join much better than if quite separated. When you have some ready to join, place the halves even together, and paste a slip of paper round the opening, to hold them together, and let them dry. Then lay on paper, all over as before, every where equally, excepting that end which goes downward in the mortar, which may be a little thicker than the rest; for that part, which receives the blow from the pounder in the chamber of the mortar, consequently requires the greatest strength.

When the shell is perfectly dry, burn a vent at the top, with an iron, large enough for the fuse. This method will answer for balloons from 4 inches ²/₅ths, to 8 inches in diameter; but, if they are larger, or required to be thrown to a great height, let the first shell be turned of elm, instead of being made of paper.

For balloons 4 inches ²/₅ths, let the former be 3 inches ¹/₈th, in diameter, and 5¹/₂ inches long. For a balloon of 5¹/₂ inches, the diameter of the former must be 4 inches, and 8 inches long. For a balloon of 8 inches, let the diameter of the form be 5 inches and ¹⁵/₁₆ths, and 11 inches ⁷/₈ths long. For a 10 inch balloon, let the form be 7 inches ³/₁₆ths, in diameter, and 14¹/₂ inches long. The thickness of a shell for a balloon of 4 inches ²/₅ths, must be ¹/₂ an inch. For a balloon of 5¹/₂ inches, let the thickness of the paper be ⁵/₈ths, of an inch; for an 8 inch balloon, ⁷/₈ths, of an inch; and for a ten inch balloon, 1 inch and ¹/₈th of an inch.

Shells, that are designed for stars only, may be made quite round, and the thinner they are at the opening, the better; for if they are too strong, the stars are apt to break at the busting of the shell. When making the shell, employ a pair of callipers, or a round gage; so that you may not lay the paper thicker in one place than other, and also that you may be able to know, when the shell is of a proper thickness. Balloons must always be made to go easy into the mortars. (See Encycl. Brit. Art. Balloon cases.)

Sect. X. Of Cases for Illumination Port-fires.

These must be made very thin, of paper, and rolled on formers; from 2 to ³/₈ths of an inch in diameter, and from 2[247] to 6 inches long: they are pinched close at one end, and left open at the other. When they are to be filled, put in but a little composition at a time, and ram it lightly, so as not to break the case. Three or four rounds of paper, with the last round pasted, will be sufficiently strong for these cases. (Ibid.)

Sect. XI. Of Cases and Moulds for Common Port-fires.

Common port-fires, are intended purposely to fire the works, their fire being very slow, and the heat of the flame so intense, that, if applied to rockets, leaders, &c. it will fire them immediately. When used, they are held in copper sockets, fixed in the end of a long stick. These sockets are made like port-crayons, only with a screw instead of a ring.

Port-fires, or lances of service of the French, may be made of any length, but are seldom more than 21 inches long.

The interior diameter of port-fire moulds should be ¹⁰/₁₆ths, of an inch, and the diameter of the former half an inch. The cases must be rolled wet with paste, and one end pinched or folded down. The moulds should be made of brass, and to take in 2 pieces lengthwise: when the case is in the two sides, they are held together by brass rings or hoops, which are made to fit over the outside. The bore of the mould must not be quite through, so that there will be no occasion for a foot. The French make the cases of five thicknesses of paper, and form the moulds upon rollers of ³/₈ths of an inch in diameter.

Port fire, according to the full acceptation of the term Porte-feu of the French, means a porter, or carrier of fire, and implies all sorts of fusées or matches, by which fire is communicated.

In a treatise on Military Fire-works, as taught at Strasburg in 1764, an extract of which was translated and published by order of the War Department in 1800, there are some observations on port-fires, which, as the mode of making them according to these directions appears to have been adopted, may be useful to notice in this place.

"Port-fires may be made in two ways. The first is made and beaten in a mould; the other simply rolled on a ramrod, and filled lying on the table.

"To make port-fires of the first kind, the mould must be made of dry wood, such as pear-tree, nut or box wood. The height of the mould is 13.85 inches; its diameter at the bottom, 3.2 inches; its diameter above, 2.13 inches; diameter[248] of the hole or caliber, .62 inches; height of the base, 2.13 inches; its diameter, 3.2 inches.

"The base of the mould has in the middle a nob, which the turner leaves there, the diameter of which is equal to the whole of the mould, and one inch high, including the circle, which should be rounded like a hemisphere. There must be three rods, one of which, of hard wood to roll the cartridge upon; the two others of iron to ram down with. The one to roll upon, or the form, is to be of the length of the mould, exclusive of the handle, which is 3.2 inches longer. The diameter of this rod is .45 parts of an inch. The first, or greater one to charge with, is the same length with that to roll upon; the second is but half the length, and both are .44 parts of an inch in diameter.

"To make good cartridges, you must have good paper, well sized, cut according to the length of the rolling rod or form, which must be rolled very tightly round the form, so that the vacancy left may be exactly equal to the size of the mould, and that the paper should exactly fill the space between the form and the mould. Then the form is drawn out, after having tied it at the end with packthread. To fill it, it must be replaced in the mould. A cupful of composition is then put in, and five or six strokes given with the large ramrod. The ramrod is then withdrawn, and a new charge is put in, which is beaten like the first, until the cartridge is filled to the height of the mould. It is then drawn out, and primed with priming powder.

"The port-fire is filled with ease, in using a tunnel placed at the end of the cartouch, through which you pass the rod.

"Composition of Port-fires of the first kind.

"After having mixed these materials well together with the hand, and then with a rolling pin, you pass them through a hair sieve, and fill your wooden bowls.

"The second kind of Port-fires, are made in rolling strips of paper 3 inches wide, and 1.278 inches long, on a form of hard wood, about 14 inches long, and .35 parts of an inch in diameter. When about two-thirds of the paper is rolled, the remainder of it is to be pasted over with paste[249] made of flour and glue. You then finish it, by passing your hand along the extremity of the pasted paper. Having finished the number required, you place them in the sun, or near a stove, and turn them from time to time, to prevent them from sticking together, or bending.

"Cartridges being well dried, you must fill them with the following composition. Fold the paper at one of the ends, and at the other, pour in the composition, placing your cartridge against the composition; and having placed it perpendicularly on the table, you give it several strokes, to drive down the composition. Then you take your iron rod, which is .53 parts of an inch longer than the one which you use to roll with, and a little less in thickness at the top. There should be a ring, that it may hang to the finger, and move the more easily. Having laid your cartridges on the table, you introduce the rod, and with it compress the composition. Having withdrawn it, more is put in, it is pressed again, and so on until entirely full. You will take care to press the last layer of the composition more than the other, to prevent its falling out by moving.

"The port-fire cartridges being finished, they are laid by for use, putting ten in a packet as before.

"Composition of Port-fires of the second kind.

"These three articles being mixed, you will put them in a wooden bowl, and moisten them with linseed oil, until you find the composition (being pressed well) is sufficiently hard."

It may be sufficient to observe, that the present improved process of making port-fires is preferable. (See Port-fires.)

Sec. XII. Of Pasteboard, and its Uses.

The pasteboard, used in pyrotechny, is made of fine white paper, by joining together five, and sometimes six, seven, and eight sheets of paper. That which is generally employed, is made of five sheets, and the other descriptions are employed for large cases. Sized paper is preferable, having more firmness than the other.

Pasteboard is made in the following way: A paste of flour[250] is first prepared with hot water, and passed through a hair sieve, to separate the lumps. A sheet of paper is stretched upon a table, and covered, by means of a brush, with paste, and a sheet is then laid over it. This is compressed, and another coat of paste applied; then another sheet, then paste, and the number is added according to the thickness required. After five or more sheets are thus pasted together, a dry sheet is laid over, and the operation is repeated, till five more are joined. Then a dry sheet is put on, and the pasting is renewed. By this means, every five sheets are joined together, and the sheet, thus formed, is kept apart from the rest, by the dry sheet. A pile of pasteboard, consisting of some hundred sheets, may be made in this manner at one time. They are then put into a press for the space of five or six hours, by which they become firmly united, and all the extraneous paste is pressed out. When a press cannot be had, they may be put between boards, and heavy weights laid on. The pasteboard is then hung up in the air to dry, and again submitted to the press, to remove any inequalities, and to make it smooth.

When glazed paper is used for making pasteboard, we may employ, alternately, a sheet of brown paper. It is better, however, to use more of the glazed paper, than of the brown paper. Pasteboard of three thicknesses will be sufficient for most purposes. It is this kind, which is used for the heads of rockets.

Several kinds of paper, however, are used in fire-works. For small preparations, common white paper is sufficient. For port-fire cases, the common brown paper; for the joints, guarding places from fire, and covering tubes of communication, any kind of gray paper; and for covering marrons, the most indifferent kind may be used. Cartridge paper, as known by that name, may be used for a variety of purposes.

Paper may be rendered incombustible, or nearly so, by soaking it repeatedly in a strong solution of alum. In the Literary Journal of 1785, of Petersburg, there is a discovery mentioned of a kind of pasteboard, which neither fire can consume, nor water soften. It appears that alumina, and its salt (alum) were used in this preparation.

In the Journal des Arts et Manufactures, tom. ii, p. 205, is an account of the manufacture of pasteboard at Malmedy; and in the Transactions of the Society of Stockholm for 1785, is a description of the process for making the Swedish stone paper, which resists equally fire and water. Stone paper is manufactured in France, (Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, article[251] Carton), by taking two parts of martial earth, (ochre, for instance), and mixing them with one part of animal oil, and two parts of vegetable matter, previously made into a pulp. The British Repository of Arts contains several specifications of patents for the preparation of the same paper.

Although paper may be rendered very difficult of combustion by the process already mentioned, that of soaking it in a strong solution of alum, yet to make a paper completely indestructible by fire, it must be made of amianthus. The process for manufacturing paper with this mineral, was announced in the Gazette de France in 1778. Professor Carbury received a medal for the invention.

Incombustible paper, for cartridges, ought to have the property, not of inflaming, but of simply carbonizing, when exposed to heat. M. Brugnatelli (Bulletin des Neustin) recommends the paper to be prepared with silicated alkali, commonly called the liquor of flints. Muriate of potassa, and supersulphate of alumina-and-potassa are both used for a similar purpose.

Paper made according to Brugnatelli's process, is merely carbonized by fire, and reduced to powder.

M. Hermbstaedt (Bulletin des Découvertes,) observes, that paper, made with silicated liquor, attracts humidity, and proposes simply a solution of green vitriol, which has not that property.

Paper may be stained, or coloured, in a variety of ways, as is the case with the portable Chinese fire-works, that are brought to this country. Thus, a red paper may be formed by dipping it in a decoction of brazil wood and alum; yellow, by using fustic; a green, by a mixed bath of blue and yellow dye, or a solution of copper, &c. Coloured paper may be glazed with weak size, rubbing it afterwards with a polished stone.

The Chinese are in possession of several processes, as well for making, as for ornamenting paper. Their silver paper, which is sometimes put on their fire-works, is variously figured. The art is very simple. Two scruples of glue, and one scruple of alum, are dissolved in a pint of water. This is evaporated, and put on the paper, where they want it, and finally pulverized silvery talc (a magnesian stone) is sifted over it. It is then exposed to the sun, and the extraneous talc is brushed off. The glue, it is obvious, causes the talc to adhere.

The Abbé Raynal (Histoire Philosophique des deux Indes t. iii, p. 225) has some interesting facts respecting Chinese[252] paper. Some useful remarks on paper hangings, paper for decorations, tapestry paper, &c. may be found in the Journal de Paris, 1785, the Lycée des Arts 1795, and the Encyclopedie Method. Arts et Metiers, t. iv, p. 393. On the formation of paper vases, in imitation of Japan vases, consult the Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, article vases. The different patents, respecting paper, may be seen in the British Repertory of Arts, and the manufacture of paper generally, in Rees's Cyclopedia, and the Artist's Manual. The American improvements are noticed in the latter. Beckman (History of Inventions) has a variety of remarks on the same subject; and, in his article on paper hangings, &c. vol. ii, p. 161, says, that artists employed the silver-coloured glimmer (isinglass) for the covering of paper, and that the nuns of Reichtinstein ornamented with it, the images, which they made; as the nuns in France, and other catholic countries, ornamented their agni Dei, by strewing over them a shining kind of talc.

The quality of the paste, which is employed in making pasteboard, ought to be attended to. The flour should be of rye, and well boiled, after mixing it uniformly with cold water. Strong bookbinder's paste has the addition of a fourth, fifth, or sixth of the weight of the flour, of powdered alum. The patent paste is prepared by extracting starch from potatoes, in the usual manner, by means of cold water, and mixing it with mashed potatoes, after they have been boiled, and boiling the whole in water.

The Japanese cement, or rice-glue, may be advantageously used in many cases. It is formed by mixing rice flour intimately with cold water, and then boiling it very gently. It is beautifully white, and dries almost transparent. We are told, that it is preferable, in every respect, to the paste made with flour; and its strength is such, that paper, pasted together with it, will sooner separate in their own substance than at the joining.

The Chinese, to prevent accidents, and in order that they may fire their works without injury, and particularly their cases which are charged with brilliant fire, have a process, for preparing a paste of a different kind. With the exception of the clay, the same substances have been employed elsewhere for the like purpose. It consists of one pound of rye flour, boiled in water; to which is added, a small handful of common salt, the whole being thickened with finely pulverized white clay. The pasteboard, we are informed, which is made with this paste, is not only very solid, but not so susceptible of inflammation, as that prepared in the usual way.

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A Chinese paste is announced in the Bulletin de la Société d'Encouragement, 1815, which is very economical, and used with success. It is made by mixing ten pounds of bullock's blood, with one pound of quicklime, and occasionally flour.

Sec. XIII. Of the Pulverization of Substances.

Various substances are employed either in grain, laminæ, filings, or impalpable powder. When treating of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, and other bodies, we mentioned the processes for reducing them to powder. It will be sufficient here to remark, that cannon powder, when it is converted into fine powder, takes the name of meal-powder; the conversion being effected, by beating it in a leather sack, already described, by rolling it upon the mealing-table, or by the action of a wooden pestle in a mortar. It is then passed through a fine sieve. The sack is said to be a preferable mode, as nearly the whole of it becomes pulverized. Saltpetre, sulphur, charcoal, antimony, &c. may be reduced to powder in a mortar of cast-iron, marble, or wood. The best method of pulverizing saltpetre is given under that article, which consists in boiling it in a copper, and stirring it continually at the end of the process. The best mode of pulverizing, or bringing cast-iron to a state of fineness, is mentioned in the article on Iron. Some of the metals, as iron, zinc, the alloy of copper and zinc, (brass,) &c. are brought to a sufficient fineness by the file. The filings, if so required, may be afterwards sifted. Zinc, when in small pieces, may be pulverized, by means of a steel mortar and pestle. It may be granulated, by suffering it to run, when melted, through an iron cullender into water. For the pulverization of camphor, see that article.

Sec. XIV. Of Mixtures.

All compositions for fire-works, are generally made at first in mortars, and the mixture is then finished by passing it through a sieve; it being returned to the sieve, and again sifted. This operation is sometimes repeated several times. Of all compositions, that for sky-rockets requires to be most intimately blended.

To receive the sifted matter, leather or parchment is used; but, in lieu of either, pasteboard, or several sheets of paper, cemented or glued together will answer. It is obvious, that, in preparing mixtures, of two, three, or four articles, they[254] should not only be very fine, but uniformly and intimately mixed.

Several receivers, made by stitching leather over a rim, in the manner of a sieve, would be found very convenient; but wooden bowls, and copper basins, are generally used.

Some ingredients must be passed through a lawn sieve, after having been previously incorporated. A receiver, with a top, is the kind of sieve to be preferred. The composition for wheels, and common works, need not be so fine as for rockets. But in all fixed works, from which the fire is to play regularly, the ingredients must be very fine, and great care taken in mixing them together; and in those works, into the composition of which, iron and steel enter, the hands must neither touch them, nor moisture be suffered to come in contact. In either case, they would be apt to rust.

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PART III.

FIRE-WORKS IN GENERAL.

CHAPTER I.

OBSERVATIONS ON FIRE-WORKS.

In Europe, the invention of fire-works is of a recent date, and ascribed to the Italians. In China, however, fire-works have been known for centuries. Some recent exhibitions at Pekin prove, that the Chinese have attained to a degree of perfection, not surpassed by the artists of France, Italy, or England. The observations of Mr. Barrow, (Travels in China), on this subject are worthy of notice. "The fire-works, in some particulars," says he, "exceeded any thing of the kind I had ever seen. In grandeur, magnificence, and variety, they were, I own, inferior to the Chinese fire-works, we had seen at Batavia, but infinitely superior in point of novelty, neatness, and ingenuity of contrivance. One piece of machinery I greatly admired; a chest five feet square, was hoisted up by a pulley, to the height of fifty or sixty feet from the ground: the bottom was so constructed as then, suddenly, to fall out, and make way for twenty or thirty strings of lanterns, enclosed in a box, to descend from it, unfolding themselves from one another by degrees, so as, at last, to form a collection of full 500, each having a light of a beautifully coloured flame, burning brightly within it. This devolution and development of lanterns was several times repeated, and, at every time, exhibited a difference of colour and figure. On each side, was a correspondence of smaller boxes, which opened in like manner as the others, and let down an immense net-work of fire, with divisions and compartments of various forms and dimensions, round and square, hexagons, octagons, &c. which shone like the brightest burnished copper, and flashed like prismatic colours, with every impulse of the wind. The di[256]versity of colours, with which the Chinese have the secret of clothing fire, seems one of the chief merits of their pyrotechny. The whole concluded with a volcano, or general explosion and discharge of suns, stars, squibs, crackers, rockets, and granadoes, which involved the gardens for above an hour in a cloud of intolerable smoke."

Thevenot (Travels in the Levant) says, that during the bairam, or carnival, which takes place with a great deal of ceremony, the sultan causes fire-works to be played off all night; the sultan and sultanas diverting themselves with these and other amusements. Dr. Pococke (Travels through Egypt), says, that at Cairo, when the Nile is high, besides aquatic excursions, concerts of music, and other diversions, fire-works form a part of those pleasures and recreations. In a Description of the East Indies, fire-works are stated to be often exhibited at the marriage of the Banians or Gentoos.

With respect to the arrangement and display of sundry pieces of fire-works, either alone or combined, the effect depends, as well upon the ingredients, which compose the several sorts of fire, as on the taste displayed in their exhibition. It would be altogether unnecessary to notice, at this time, the order of exhibition usually adopted, reserving this subject until we have gone into the various preparations, which constitute, as it is called, a system of fire-works. In order, however, to become familiar with the manner of arranging them, as well as with their composition and preparation, whether designed for a general or a partial display, for the open air or for rooms, we purpose to appropriate distinct chapters for their consideration.

The variety of preparations, which become necessary where a full exhibition is intended, the accuracy of the different mixtures, and the adjustment of cases to wheels, whether vertical or horizontal, and the arrangement of the leaders, or communicators of fire, from one part to another of the work, with many other circumstances, in relation to stars, rain, &c. all require, from the artist, particular care and attention.

For the mere exhibition of one or two pieces, as a plain rocket, rocket with serpents, or the like, and likewise for some exhibitions, on water, called aquatic fire-works, in rooms or apartments, with scented fire, or on the stage; the preparations are by no means extensive.

It is, therefore, our design to present a view of the whole subject in detail, and to speak of the different combinations[257] of arrangement, which are made according to fancy and taste, and calculated, as we have remarked, either for small or extensive exhibitions.

We have, in a preceding part of this work, made some observations on certain preliminary operations; on the various sizes and charges for cases; on the paper, necessary to be used, for different kinds of cases; and, generally, on sundry manipulations, connected with the making, filling, and preparation of sundry descriptions of fire-works. It remains, therefore, in the course of this subject, to give the several formulæ, with such observations as immediately concern the subject; and for this purpose we will pursue the following order:

Frazier is of opinion, that the arrangement of fire-works, which have been exhibited with effect, may, on particular occasions, be established as a guide. For this reason, Morel introduces an account of the celebrated fire-works at Versailles and Paris, in 1739, which we shall here notice.

Exhibition of fire-works at the city house of Paris, on occasion of the peace in 1739.

The theatre was a building, forty feet square, with a pyramid of eighty feet in height, on which was placed a globe, containing artificial fire, and accompanied with sixteen large vases of different forms.

All the edifice was ornamented with a variety of decorations, combined with figures and emblems of peace, and painted on marble.

After several guns were fired, as a signal, the exhibition commenced, with the discharge of a large number of honorary rockets, fired three and three at a time. Nearly five hundred lances, and saucissons garnished, lighted the four sides of the body of the works. Thirty cases of artificial fire, furnished with fusées, and double marquises, were placed upon the large terrace, with 1200 pots à feu (fire-pots); and upon the ballustrade of the same terrace, forty jets, twenty of which were aigrettes, and eight, revolving suns, four in the middle, and four on the angles. Four large fixed suns were placed above the four which revolved, and four pattes d'oies, (geese feet,) were situated before the grand pedestal of the pyramid, with jets, and pots with aigrette.

At the foot of the pyramid, on the steps, were placed 1200 fire-pots, and upon the pedestal of the pyramid, twelve large pots of aigrette, on the extremity of which, were arranged aigrettes in groups, and three large luminous stars, formed[258] of two hundred fire lances. The four faces of the pyramid were lined with about fifty other jets; after which there were cascades, or fountains of fire. The first horizontal wheel was composed of, or furnished with, six cases, and contained also two hundred and forty double marquises. The second wheel contained two hundred and forty fire-pots, and six cases, with upwards of three hundred fusées, all in stars, twelve air balloons in the middle, but placed at the bottom of the fire-work. To this was added, twelve artificial bombs, fixed in mortars, and placed near the cannon, which pointed to the works.

This outline of the brilliant exhibition of fire-works in 1739, will give the reader some idea of the taste and magnificence of the work at that period. We may here add, however, that the improvements, which have since taken place, both in the composition of artificial fire, and its arrangement, are such as to place the modern exhibitions of this kind far above that we have just spoken of. But the following account of the execution of fire-works, performed on the Pont Neuf, in August of the same year, is more extensive, as the exhibition appears to have been more grand.

The theatre, which represented the temple of Hymen, was an edifice of the doric order. It was square. A gallery of five hundred feet in length was supported by thirty-two columns, four feet in diameter, and thirty-three feet in height. In the interior, were two solid bodies, and also one or more stair cases. At the two sides of this temple, along the parapets of the Pont Neuf, were thirty-six pyramids, eighteen of which were forty feet high, and the others, twenty-six feet. They were joined by what is called, in architecture, a corbil, and carried vases on their summits.

The signal for the exhibition was given by the firing of cannon. Immediately, were seen, rising into the air from each side of the temple, three hundred rockets, fired twelve at a time. They were discharged from the eight towers of the Pont Neuf, which face the Tuileries, and were succeeded (upon the same towers,) by one hundred and eighty pots of aigrette. The Chinese trees were disposed in such a manner, as to form a pyramid. A succession of Chinese trees now appeared, immediately on the tablet of the cornice of the bridge; then followed a great fixed sun, sixty feet in diameter, which appeared in all its splendour, in the midst of surrounding objects. Under this, was placed a large illuminated cypher, thirty feet in height, which consisted of different colours, in imitation of jewels. At the sides, between the pillars of the temple, were also two other artificial cyphers,[259] six feet high, and composed of blue fire, which had a surprising effect. There were placed upon the two walks of the bridge, on the right and left of the temple, beyond the illuminated pyramids, two hundred cases of fusées de partement, of five or six dozen each. These cases were fired, five at a time, and succeeded the rockets. They began, on each side, from the first near the temple, and in succession, as far as the extremities to the right and left. There appeared then cascades of red fire, issuing from the five arches of the bridge, which seemed to pierce the illumination, and so vivid was the light, that the eye could scarcely sustain it. The combat of the dragons next ensued; and the water-fire, or aquatic fire-works, covered almost the whole surface of the river. Eight boats, containing works for the display on water, were arranged in symmetrical order, with the boats of illumination. There were also thirty-six cascades or fountains of fire, about thirty feet high, which appeared to rise out of the water. This exhibition of the cascades, was preceded by a revolving water-sun, and a discharge of stars from one hundred and sixty pots of aigrettes, which were placed at the lower part of the terrace.

Four large boats, containing aquatic fire-works, were moored near the arches of the bridge, and four others were disposed on the side next to the Tuileries. The fire-works, which they contained, consisted of a great number of large and small casks, charged with gerbes and pots, which, when discharged, filled the air with serpents, stars, &c. There was, also, a large number of hand gerbes, and revolving water-suns.

When the exhibition of the cascades was finished, the grand chandelier, composed of six thousand fusées, and resting on the top of the temple, was lighted. Both extremities were set on fire at the same time. This was followed by two smaller chandeliers, previously placed on each side of the foot-way of the bridge, and containing five hundred fusées each.

The fire-works, exhibited at Versailles, in the same year, and on the same occasion, were also magnificent. The account we have of them is the following: There was a large building erected, representing the temple of Hymen, nine hundred feet in length, and one hundred and twenty in height, in the gardens of Versailles, in front of the grand gallery. It was in the form of a portico, with re-enterings and salients at the two extremities, which faced the two great basins; and, in the centre, were illuminated works.

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The forges of Vulcan, in the grottos, commenced with the sound of the hammers of the Cyclops. The sparks, then produced, covered, in a few instants, the two basins, provided for the purpose, with an apparent sheet or volume of fire.

From the summit of a rock, came out a jet of brilliant fire, more than thirty feet in height, accompanied with four others of less elevation, representing torrents of fire as from volcanoes. To this succeeded a great jet of water, forty-five feet in height, leading with it, as it were, seventeen other jets, which surrounded the rocks, and rushing forth with avidity, produced, in appearance, a mixture of flame and water, which, in the end, consumed entirely the two grottos.

After this, the fire-works, behind the decoration, were exhibited. Two hundred and fifty boxes, and as many caissons, arranged on both sides of the turf, which descended to the grass, were first exhibited. This, however, was less brilliant than the fire from the Cyclops. To this succeeded a brilliant fire, placed before the illumination. This composition, elevating itself to a mean height, pleased equally by its form, as by its brilliant whiteness. This fire composed three distinct decorations, which succeeded as the one replaced the other, following the same order. The spouting waters, which decorated the gardens, together with the artificial fire, appeared in the form of cascades and fountains. The first decoration, at the head of the two great basins, exhibited two handsome cascades, in the form of a white sheet, and surmounted with an aigrette twenty-five feet in height. This was accompanied with two pattes d'oies (geese feet) of seven jets each, and accompanied also with fifty jets playing from each of the sides, twenty feet in height, and occupying the fore ground.

The second appeared under the form of the pattes d'oies, of eleven jets each, of which four, at the head of the basins, were large, and all projected a body of fire, fifty feet in height. They were intermixed, however, with the pots of aigrettes, twenty feet in height, which threw a crown, composed of stars, &c. to the height of fifty feet, which produced in the atmosphere a lively and brilliant light.

The third represented thirteen fountains of fire, twenty-five feet in height, and thirty feet in diameter, with an aigrette in each. In these, there were six circular, and six spiral fountains. The largest was placed between the two basins, with four others on the right and left.

The fountains, which represented the combat of animals, had in each of them two. The animals threw, at the same[261] time, jets of water and fire, and, between each of the fountains, large brilliant jets or spouts. This part of the exhibition was finished, by throwing into the air the garnishing or furniture of the pots, which produced crowns, &c. of great splendour.

To these three decorations, succeeded the exhibition of twelve Italian pots, placed six in a row, and in the middle of two great basins, which produced repeated discharges.

The whole was then closed by setting fire to two great chandeliers, which were placed behind the grand decoration, and contained more than three thousand fusées.

It appears from history, that when Henry II, entered Rheims, there was a representation of several figures in fire; and in 1606, the duke of Sully made an exhibition of fire-works at Fontainbleau; and in 1612, Morel, commissary of artillery, prepared a splendid exhibition of the same kind. It appears, also, that the art of communicating fire from one piece of fire-work to another, as in the combined piece of nine mutations, and the pyric-piece (which will be noticed hereafter) was discovered by Ruggeri, artificer to the king, at Boulogne, in France, in 1743.

It may not be improper, in concluding this article, to notice, in a general manner, the exhibition of the works of fire by the ancients.

The fire-works of the ancients consisted, for the principal part, of illuminations, and the use of some particular descriptions of fire. They were, however, very imperfect. Since the invention of gunpowder, its effects as well as its modifications, in this particular, became known; and, so far as respects the various preparations of artificial fire, gunpowder itself has produced a new era in pyrotechny, and the various modifications, to which it is subject, have occasioned a great variety of fire-works.

According to the authority we have on the subject, it appears, that the ancients, in exhibiting their preparations of fire, set them off by the hand, and directed them among the people, which produced great eclat.

Another description of fire-work was designed expressly for the theatre, part of which was exhibited in the form of man or beast. Of their theatrical works, our accounts are imperfect. Their works, generally, were formed of lardons, stars, and fire-balls, in imitation of grenades, and flying fusées or rockets. That they neither had a system in arranging, nor regularity in exhibiting their works, is evident from a variety of circumstances; for, although the number of their[262] pieces, such as they were, was great; yet, they so crowded them upon each other, as that, when they were fired, they frequently destroyed the persons in their vicinity. An author of antiquity observes, that "he has seen a great many artificial machines, but, to speak the truth, few which have succeeded; and it is commonly after acclamations of joy, that the spectacle is finished by the destruction of some, and the wounding of a great number."

This fact is not at all surprising; because their works were prepared in wooden tubes, at least among the more modern, as paper cases were not then known. These tubes, moreover, were not secured by any covering, and were the more likely to burst, and hence accidents were common. The moderns, however, have rejected altogether the use of wood, in the formation of cases, and have availed themselves of the use of paper, which can be made of any size or thickness. (See Pasteboard.)

Notwithstanding wood is not employed by experienced fire-workers, partly in consequence of the reasons just given, and partly because paper furnishes a material in every way adapted to the purpose; yet, within a few years past, reed has been used in Spain, which, however, is secured by cloth and pack thread. Such substitutes, nevertheless, besides being more or less dangerous, have nothing to recommend them. It is a fact, that the Chinese, who undoubtedly excel in the manufacture of fire-works, if we believe the authority of the English embassy, use altogether paper cases; but in the war-rocket, employed by the natives against the British at Seringapatam, which did, according to the English account, great execution, their cases were formed entirely of sheet-iron. In their smaller works, which are prepared expressly for sale, paper cases are altogether made use of.

CHAPTER II.

FIRE-WORKS FOR THEATRICAL PURPOSES.

Sec. I. Of Puffs, or Bouffées.

The bouffée, according to the term used in French, signifies a species of fire, which exhibits itself in puffs, or in alternate appearances, more or less brilliant. It is also called[263] the flambeaux of the furies. This description of artificial fire is used in theatres, and frequently in ordinary fire-works. It is fired from, and exhibited with, a funnel of tin, or sheet iron, having a hole at the apex of the cone. The hole is to be sufficiently large to admit the fire from a quick match. It is particularly calculated, when a gulf, crater, or the caves of the Cyclops, intended to eject flame, are to be exhibited.

Although many compositions may be used for this purpose, yet the following, which is employed in France, is considered preferable:

Composition for Bouffées.

When the materials are well mixed, a piece of silk paper is prepared in a round shape, by pressing it on the end of a roller, in the same manner as the ordinary cases. About one ounce of the composition is put into it, on which is placed very lightly two drachms of meal-powder. A double quick-match is now put on the meal-powder, and the paper is closed by pressing it between the fingers. It is then tied with twine. The quick-match is left sufficiently long to pass through the hole at the apex of the cone, in which is introduced the puff, being pressed a little at the bottom. The excess of the quick-match, should there be any, is cut off within an inch of the extremity of the funnel. When used, it is inflamed by a lance or port fire. The effect of the puff, in the first place, is to throw out of the funnel, by the meal-powder, a volume of fire, which will cause the appearances before mentioned.

Sec. II. Of Eruptions.

If the appearance of a volcano, or the effect of a mine is required in a piece, the following method is commonly followed: a tin, sheet-iron, or brass box is provided, either round or square, of nine inches in height, and three inches and a half in diameter, and placed on a wooden stand, sufficiently large to prevent it from overturning.

Three, four, or five ounces of the composition, mentioned in Sec. i. of this chapter, is put into it, according to the effect intended to be produced. The composition is pressed a little with the hand, and a piece of quick-match is used. This[264] match projects out of the case, and is secured with a piece of paper, pasted over its circumference.

When the fire is presented to the quick-match, it communicates with rapidity to the inside of the box, or case, which produces an eruption, from twelve to fifteen feet in height. The effect may be made more or less great, by making the boxes of a proportional size, or by using several of them at the same time.

If a mine is the subject of representation, it is necessary to employ some large marrons, which should communicate with the boxes, and in such a manner, as that they may operate at the same time.

This exhibition, it is obvious, may be varied according to circumstances, either by employing a larger quantity of the composition in several cases, or by using one or more marrons, or some other descriptions of fire-works, the effect of which is calculated to increase the flame, and to produce the necessary variations.

Sec. III. Of the Flames.

If a flame is to be represented, as for example, the effect of an incendiary, and its appearance is to be prolonged, the fire from tow being too transient, small iron kettles, of four inches in diameter, and depth, may be used. In these are put three or four ounces of the composition of the lances of service, which is moistened with the oil or spirit of turpentine. When set on fire, they will produce a blaze three or four feet in height, and one and a half in diameter. Several may be used, according to the effect required. See the composition for the lances of service.

Sec. IV. Of the Fire-rain.

A variety of compositions for fire-rain are used, which will be noticed, when we speak of the garnishing of rockets, and other fire-works.

Cases are prepared of seven-twelfths of an inch in diameter, and ten inches long, which are choaked in such a manner, as that the hole of communication should be one-third of the diameter of the interior case. They are then charged with the following composition:

Composition of the fire-rain.

When the cases are charged and primed, they are tied upon a rod, having a groove cut in its length. In the inside of the groove, is a port-fire, or leader, which is tied to the cases with twine, and the groove is then covered with several pieces of paper, in the shape of a band.

This precaution is thus taken for the theatre, in order to prevent the inflamed port-fire from falling on the stage.

Sec. V. Of other Compositions for Fire-rain, in Chinese fire.

The composition of Chinese fire, which we will have occasion to mention more fully hereafter, is calculated to exhibit a more brilliant fire, with a steady and uniform effect. It is used principally on the French stage, in large operas. It is charged and used, in all respects, like the preceding.

Composition of Chinese Fire.

The elegance of the flame, produced by this mixture, depends entirely upon the effect, which cast iron possesses; and, by its combination with charcoal, sulphur, meal powder, and nitre, while an oxide of iron results from the combustion, we have, likewise, other products, arising from the decomposition of the nitre, and the union of carbon and sulphur respectively with a part of the oxygen of the nitric acid of the nitre. The gunpowder decomposes itself by reason of the nature of its own composition; but the sulphur, charcoal, and iron, decompose the nitric acid of the nitre, in the act of combustion. So that, to produce the effect, an additional quantity of nitre to that which is in the gunpowder, is required in this preparation.

Sec. VI. Of Thunderbolts. (Foudres F.)

The thunderbolts are charged in cases of two-thirds of an inch in diameter, in the same manner as cases for wheels and rockets. They are primed, whitened, well pasted, and left[266] to dry. Some preliminary operations are required in their exhibition, as the use of the piercer, the tying of one end of the case, which is to descend first from the top of the theatre, &c. A port-fire is used for setting them off.

Composition of Thunderbolts.

Sec. VII. Of Dragons and other Monsters.

In certain pieces, exhibitions of this kind are made. They are formed in such a way, as to make them throw fire from the mouth, nose, and ears, which is blown out into the air. Cases, charged with brilliant fire, are so arranged that their fire may act all at the same time. Puffs may also be produced to go out at the mouth, by means of a tube or funnel, placed behind the monster. These preparations and exhibitions are so susceptible of variations, that, having a previous knowledge of the composition and effect of the fire-work, it may be so arranged as to produce a variety of appearances.

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Sec. VIII. Of Lightning.

The effect of lightning may be shown by several preparations. Lycopodium, or puff-ball, is the substance most commonly employed. When it cannot be procured, rosin may be substituted; and, generally, as the latter is cheaper, it is used. Rosin, reduced to an impalpable powder, and thrown upon a flame, will produce the effect in a remarkable degree, and when blown through a tube, the effect is more striking.

Several fluid substances, when ejected from a syringe on a lighted candle, have the same appearance. Alcohol has this effect. The difficulty of preparing and employing them, has given the lycopodium a preference.

A tin or brass tube, larger at one end than the other, and covered at the former end, with a cover, perforated with holes, similar to the branch of a watering pot, is used for holding the composition, or substance made use of. Through this cover, or lid, a cotton wick is put, which, before lighting, is well soaked in alcohol or spirits of wine. When lighted, the torch or tube, containing the lycopodium, or rosin, is shaken at the smaller extremity; when these substances will pass through the holes in small quantities, and be successively inflamed.

Sec. IX. Of the Artifice of Destruction.

When, in any exhibition, palaces, castles, or forts are to be demolished, or thrown down, there are about twenty petards fixed on rods. Petards, for this use, are made with cases, and sometimes with wheels. The cases are generally three-quarters of an inch in diameter, charged with grain powder, and choaked at both ends. They are arranged in a zigzag direction.

This series of crackers has a fine effect. It is obvious, that, in all these exhibitions, intelligent artizans may employ various descriptions of artificial fire, where, in particular, it often seems, that there is something yet to be wished for.

Sec. X. Of the Spur-fire.

The spur-fire is so called, because its fire or sparks resemble the rowel of a spur. It is used in theatres and in rooms. It is the most beautiful of any yet known, and was invented by the Chinese, but greatly improved in Europe.

It requires great care to make it properly. Care ought to[268] be taken that all the ingredients are of the best quality, that the lampblack is neither damp nor clodded, that the saltpetre is the best refined, and the sulphur perfectly pure. This composition is generally rammed into one or two ounce cases, about five or six inches long, but not driven very hard; and the cases must have their concave stroke struck very smooth, and the choak or vent not quite so large as the usual proportion: this charge, when driven, and kept a few months, will be much better than when rammed. If kept dry, it will last many years.

As the beauty of this composition cannot be seen at so great a distance as brilliant fire, it has a better effect in a theatre or room, than in the open air; and may be fired in a chamber, without danger. Its effect is of so innocent a nature, that it has been called cold fire; and so extraordinary is the fire produced from this composition, that if well made, the sparks will not burn a handkerchief when held in the midst of them. The hand, brought in contact with the spark, will feel only a sensation similar to that occasioned by the falling of rain. When any of these spurs are fired singly, they are called artificial fire-pots; but some of them, placed round a transparent pyramid of paper, and fired in a large room, make a very elegant appearance.

Composition of Spur-Fire.

The saltpetre and sulphur must be first mixed together, and sifted, and then put into a marble mortar, and the lampblack with them, which are to be worked by degrees, with a wooden pestle, till all the ingredients appear of one colour, which will be a gray, approaching to black. It is then to be tried by driving a little of it into a case, and fired in a dark place; and if the sparks, which are called stars, or pinks, come out in clusters, and afterwards spread well, without any other sparks, it is a criterion of its goodness. If any drossy sparks appear, and the stars are not full, it is then not mixed sufficiently: but, if the pinks are very small, and soon break, it is a proof that it has been rubbed too much; for, in this case, few stars will appear. When, on the con[269]trary, the mixture is not rubbed sufficiently, the combustion will be too weak, and lumps, resembling dross, with an obscure smoke, but without stars, will be emitted.

The peculiar effect of this composition is owing to the carbon of the lampblack, one part of which is inflamed, its combustion being supported by the oxygen gas of the atmosphere.

Sec. XI. Of the coloured Flame of Alcohol.

We have already remarked, in treating of alcohol, that its flame may be changed of various colours, by using certain native substances. See Alcohol.

Alcohol, thus mixed, or combined with substances, may be exhibited on certain occasions; for even cotton, when immersed in it, and set on fire, will show the same appearances. Morel remarks, that, if vinegar, a small portion of crude tartar, and common salt, and a still smaller quantity of saltpetre, be mixed together, and distilled, a liquid will be obtained, which burns with great brilliancy. It is doubtful, however, if we judge from analogy, whether either tartar, the salt, or saltpetre, will communicate any peculiar property to the distilled vinegar; for these saline substances will remain unaltered in the distilling vessel. The vinegar, nevertheless, may be obtained in a more concentrated state, being deprived of its colouring and other matter, and the greater part of its water, and, therefore, approach to the state of acetic acid.

With respect to alcohol, it is known to dissolve a variety of saline substances, most of which have the property of changing the colour of its flame. Although we have not made any experiments with the spirits of turpentine, yet we are of opinion, that it may be used with resins, &c. in the same manner. In all cases, it is evident, that the fluid made use of must be inflammable.

Macquer (Memoirs of the Turin Academy) made a number of experiments on the solubility of salts in alcohol, and on the different coloured flames, which they produced. The principal results of his experiments, are the following:

The alcohol, he employed, had a specific gravity of 0.840.

Sec. XII. Of Red fire.

Dr. Ure (Chemical Dictionary) informs us, that the beautiful red, which is now frequently used at the theatres, is composed of the following ingredients: 40 parts of dry nitrate of strontia; 13 parts of finely powdered sulphur; 5 parts of chlorate (hyperoxymuriate) of potassa, and 4 parts of sulphuret of antimony. The chlorate of potassa and sulphuret of antimony, should be powdered, separately, in a mortar, and then mixed together on paper; after which they may be added to the other ingredients, previously powdered and[271] mixed. No other kind of mixture than rubbing together on paper is required. Sometimes a little realgar is added to the sulphuret of antimony, and frequently, when the fire burns dim and badly, a very small quantity of very finely powdered charcoal or lampblack will make it perfect.

CHAPTER III.

OF PORTABLE FIRE-WORKS.

Sec. I. Of exhibitions on Tables.

Fire-works, it is obvious, may be employed in a variety of ways, either large or small, in the open air, or in apartments, according to circumstances. Fire-tables are composed of a great many works, the same as is exhibited upon a large scale; but of a size corresponding with small exhibitions. As fire-tables are used only in apartments, and the works are shown from tables, on which they are arranged, it is necessary that the cases which contain them should be of a small caliber, and their fire less extensive.

The cases or cartridges are made of one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and charged with the best pistol powder, which produces less smoke than cannon powder. These small works are usually exhibited on pasteboard, differently arranged.

Among the works are frequently figures, resembling fruit contained in gerbes and even small caprices. Pinks, which are also used, are generally modified, or accompanied with other decorations, and furnished with illuminated suns. Fire-pots of one inch in diameter, filled with small bombs and various devices, are employed, when a surprise is intended. The fire-table is arranged, although upon a small scale, in the same manner as other works. Their arrangement, therefore, is the same as for other kinds of fire-works, only proportioning them accordingly.

As to aquatic fire-works, some of which are frequently shown in rooms, the reader will find in the article on that subject, a full account of the manner of forming them. He may also consult a treatise on Artificial fire-works by Perrint D'Orval, published in 1745. This work gives ample instructions for performing all kinds of fire-work on water.

In the article alluded to will be found several formulæ for preparing odoriferous fire, which may be used for exhibitions on the table. The succeeding chapter, however, is sufficiently comprehensive on that subject.

Sec. II. Of Table Rockets.

Table rockets are not calculated for exhibition. They are designed merely to show the truth of driving, and the judgment of a fire-worker. They have no other effect, when fired, than spinning round in the same place where they began, till they are burnt out, and showing a horizontal circle of fire. The method of making these rockets, is the following: Have a cone, turned out of solid wood, 2¹/₂ inches in diameter, and of the same height, and, round its base, draw a line. On this line, fix four spokes, two inches long each, so as to stand one opposite the other; then fill four nine-inch one pound cases with any strong composition, within two inches of the top. These cases are made like tourbillons, and must[273] be rammed with the greatest exactness. The rockets being filled, fix their open ends on the short spokes; then, in the side of each case, bore a hole near the clay. All these holes or vents must be so made, that the fire of each case may act the same way; and from these vents carry leaders to the top of the cone, and tie them together. When the rockets are to be fixed, set them on a smooth table, and light the leaders in the middle, and all the cases will fire together, and spin on the point of the cone. These rockets may be made to rise, like tourbillons, by making the cases shorter, and boring four holes in the under side of each, at equal distances. This being done, they are called double tourbillons.

All the vents in the under sides of the cases, must be lighted at once; and the sharp point of the cone cut off, at which place, it is to be made spherical.

Sect. III. Of the Transparent Illuminated Table Star.

The table star is usually twelve feet in diameter, and, from the nearest extremity to the frame, four feet. This proportion, observed on each side, will make the centre frame four feet square. In this square, a transparent star is fixed. This star may be painted blue, and its rays made like the flaming stars. The wheels for this star may be composed of different coloured fires, with a charge or two of slow fire. The wheels, on the extremities, may be clothed with any number of cases; so that the star-wheel consists of the same. The illuminated fires, which must be placed very near each other on the frames, in order to have a proper effect, ought to burn as long as the wheels, and be lighted at the same time.

Sect. IV. Of Detonating Works.

We have noticed various fulminating preparations in different parts of our work, such as the ordinary fulminating powder, Higgins's fulminating powder, fulminating oil, and several metallic powders. We have also given some preparations made with fulminating silver, the making of which we have noticed.

Besides the torpedo, &c. prepared with fulminating silver, there are some other preparations made with the same substance, which we purpose to give in this place.

Waterloo crackers. Take a slip of cartridge paper, about three-quarters of an inch in width, paste and double it. Let[274] it remain till dry, and cut it into two equal parts in length, (No. 1 and 2), according to the following pattern.

Take some of the glass composition, and lay it across the paper as in the pattern, and put about a quarter of a grain of fulminating silver in the place marked S.; and, while the glass composition is moist, put the paper, marked No. 2, over the farthest row of glass. Over all, paste, twice over the part that covers the silver, a piece of paper; let it dry. By pulling both ends apart, the friction by the glass, will cause the fulminating silver to explode.

Detonating Girdle. Procure a piece of girth, from 12 to 18 inches in length. Double it, and fold it down about 1¹/₂ inches, similar to the fold of a letter, and then turn back one end of the girth, and it will form two compartments. Then dissolve some gum arabic in water, and thicken it by adding coarsely powdered glass. Place two upright rows of the glass composition, in the inside of one of the folds, about a quarter of an inch in width, and, when they are dry, sow the first fold together on the edge, and then the second at the opposite end; so that one end may be open. Then in the centre of the two rows, put about a grain of fulminating silver, and paste a piece of cotton or silk over it. Make a hole at each end of the girdle, and hang it to a hook in the door post, and the other hook on the door; observing to place the silk part, so that it may come against the edge of the door upon being opened, which will occasion a report.

Detonating Tape. This is made of binding, about ³/₈ths of an inch in width. The same directions are to be attended to, as those we have just given for making the girdle. It may be exploded by taking hold of each end, and rolling the ends from each other sharply, or by two persons pulling at opposite ends.

Detonating Balls. These are made in several ways, either by enclosing a shot in paper with fulminating silver, which is exploded by throwing it on the ground, or made of small glass globes. For the latter, procure some small glass globes, between the size of a pea and a small marble, in which there must be a small hole; put into it half a grain of fulminating silver, and paste a piece of paper over the hole. When this ball is put on the ground, and trod upon, it will go off with a loud noise. If put under the leg of a chair, and pressed by the weight of the body, the same effect will take place.

[275]

Detonating Cards. Take a piece of card, about three fourths of an inch in breadth and 12 in length; slit it at one end, and place in the opening a quarter of a grain of fulminating silver, close the end down with a little paste, and when dry light the end in a candle.

Fulminating silver may be used in several other ways, affording a variety in the effect, as the following: Fold a letter in the usual manner, and along with the wafer introduce the fulminating silver mixed with some glass: when the wafer is broken, in the act of opening the letter, a violent explosion will take place.

By placing a quarter of a grain of the powder in the midst of some tobacco in a pipe, or between the leaves of a segar, and closing the end again to prevent the powder from falling out; it need hardly be stated, that on lighting it, an explosion ensues. Such experiments should be made with caution.

One-third of a grain of fulminating silver, folded in a small piece of paper, and wrapped in another piece, then pasted round a pin, which is to be stuck in the wick of a candle, will make a loud report.

As fulminating silver explodes by heat, or friction, it is obvious, that various contrivances may be used for this purpose. If, for instance, half a grain be put on a piece of glass paper, (paper covered with a mixture of powdered glass and gum), then inclosed in a piece of tin foil, and put in the bottom or side of a drawer; on opening or shutting it, the powder will immediately explode. The same effect takes place by putting a quarter of a grain into a piece of paper, and placing it in the snuffers. When the candle is snuffed, it will go off.

Two figures, one of which blows out and the other relights a candle, are sometimes exhibited in rooms. This is performed by making two figures of any shape or material, and inserting in the mouth of one, a small tube, at the end of which is a piece of phosphorus, and in the mouth of the other, a tube containing at the end a few grains of gunpowder; observing that each be retained in the tube by a piece of paper. If the second figure be applied to the flame of a taper, it will extinguish it, by reason of the gunpowder, and the first will light it again.

Candle bombs. These are usually called candle crackers, and are made of glass. They are blown in small bubbles, having a neck about half an inch long, with very slender bores, by means of which a small quantity of water or spirit of wine is introduced. The orifice is then closed. When[276] they are stuck into a candle, the heat converts the water or alcohol into vapour, which breaks the glass with a loud report, extinguishing the flame at the same time.

Detonations by Electricity. The electric fluid, it is known, will inflame combustible bodies, and, for the purpose of experiment, several contrivances have been used. That of placing the substance, gunpowder for instance, on a small insulated stand, and passing the spark through it by means of conductors, will cause its inflammation. The electrical house is also an exemplification of the effect of the electric fluid.

Detonations by Galvanism. Substances, placed on a glass plate, and brought in contact with the positive and negative poles of a galvanic battery, are readily inflamed. Hence phosphorus, gunpowder, the metals, &c. may be inflamed in this manner. The deflagrator of professor Hare of the University of Pennsylvania, is a powerful apparatus for the purpose; for the construction of which, and the details of its effects, see the American Journal of Science by professor Silliman, of Yale College.

Among the means of producing heat that of compression is well known. The common condensing syringe, for inflaming spunk or touch paper, is on this principle.

This syringe is now made very portable, not more than six inches in length and about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. The end of the piston, which fits tight in the cylinder, has a small cavity, in which the spunk is put, so that, when the piston is suddenly compressed, the air is condensed, and a temperature produced, sufficient to inflame it. The air, in the cylinder, is condensed in the ratio of about one to forty. The calculations on the degree of compression, which atmospheric air must undergo to produce fire by this kind of percussion, with observations on the subject, may be seen in M. Biot, (Traité de Physique Experimentale, &c. tome ii, p. 17), with other remarks concerning the sources of caloric.

To account for certain phenomena in the atmosphere, some of which are accompanied with detonations, Mr. Nicholson (Chemical Dictionary, article Air, atmospherical), conceives that the lower atmosphere consists chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen, together with moisture, and the occasional vapours or exhalations of bodies. The upper atmosphere seems to be composed of a large proportion of hydrogen, a fluid of so much less specific gravity than any other, that it must naturally ascend to the highest place; where, being occasionally set on fire by electricity, it appears to be the cause of the aurora borealis and fire-balls. It may easily be understood, that this will only happen on the confines of the re[277]spective masses of common atmospherical air, and of the inflammable air; that the combustion will extend progressively, though rapidly, in flashings from the place where it commences; and that, when, by any means, a stream of inflammable air, in its progress towards the upper atmosphere, is set on fire at one end, its ignition may be much more rapid than what happens higher up, where oxygen is wanting; and at the same time more definite in its figure and progression, so as to form the appearance of a fire-ball.

Detonations frequently accompany combustion. There are many interesting experiments on this subject, some of which we will notice in this place, viz.

Experiment 1. If a small portion of fulminating powder be placed on a fire-shovel over a hot fire, it will become brown, then melt, and swell up, and finally explode. See Fulminating powder.

Experiment 2. Iron filings and sulphur, made into a paste with water, and buried in the ground for a few hours, will unite, decompose the water, and inflame; throwing up the earth with violence and noise. See Artificial Volcano.

Experiment 3. If nitrate of copper be spread on tin foil and wetted, and the foil immediately wrapped up, scintillations of fire will follow, accompanied with slight detonations.

Experiment 4. Five or six grains of sulphuret of antimony, with half its weight of chlorate of potassa, when struck with a hammer will cause a loud detonation.

Experiment 5. Two grains of chlorate of potassa, and one grain of flowers of sulphur, when rubbed together, will produce a detonating noise; and the same mixture, struck with a hammer, will give a loud report. See Chlorate of Potassa.

Experiment 6. One grain of phosphorus and two grains of chlorate of potassa, struck in the same manner, will produce a violent explosion. See Phosphorus.

Experiment 7. Mix ten grains of chlorate of potassa with one grain of phosphorus, and drop the mixture into sulphuric acid; detonation and flame will be the consequence.

Experiment 8. Make a mixture of arsenic and chlorate of potassa. On presenting a lighted match, combustion, accompanied with a detonation, will ensue; and, if a train of gunpowder be laid, and both inflamed at the same time, the arsenical mixture will burn with the rapidity of lightning, while the other burns with comparative slowness.

Experiment 9. If one grain of dry nitrate of bismuth be[278] mixed with one grain of phosphorus, and rubbed together in a metallic mortar, a loud detonation will be produced.

Experiment 10. If a globule of potassium be thrown upon water, an instantaneous explosion will be produced.

Experiment 11. A grain of fulminating gold, struck gently with a hammer, will produce a loud explosion.

Experiment 12. A few grains of fulminating mercury, struck in the same manner, will produce a loud detonation.

Experiment 13. When a grain or two of potassium are mixed with the same quantity of sodium, no effect will take place; but if the mixture be brought in contact with a globule of mercury, and agitated, combustion, with a slight detonation, will follow, showing the vivid combustion of three metals, when brought in contact with each other.

Experiment 14. If to six grains of chlorate of potassa, we add three grains of pulverized charcoal, and rub the two in a mortar, no effect will ensue; but if we add to this mixture two grains of sulphur, and continue the rubbing, inflammation, accompanied with a report, will take place. See Gunpowder of chlorate of potassa.

Experiment 15. Chlorate of potassa and sulphur, rubbed in a mortar, will produce a crackling noise, similar to that of a whip. These reports will follow in succession as the pestle is pressed on the mixture.

Experiment 16. Combustion, with a slight detonation, takes place during the melting of coin in a nut-shell. For this purpose, make a mixture of three parts of nitre, one part of sulphur, and one of very fine dry saw dust; press a small portion of this powder into a walnut shell, and put on it a small silver or copper coin, rolled up, and fill the shell with the mixture. If the mixture be now inflamed, it will melt the coin in a mass, while the shell will be only blackened.

Experiment 17. Introduce, into an inflammable air pistol, a mixture of hydrogen gas with oxygen gas, or, in the place of the latter, atmospheric air, and apply a lighted taper: a violent detonation will be produced. See Inflammable air works.

Experiment 18. Mix some fine musket powder with pulverized glass, and strike the mixture with a hammer on an anvil; the gunpowder will explode. See Gunpowder.

Experiment 19. Take a small portion of fulminating platinum, and place it on the end of a spatula, or on the blade of a knife, and hold it over the flame of a candle; a sharp explosion will take place. See Fulminating platinum.

Experiment 20. If soap bubbles be formed of a mixture of[279] hydrogen gas and atmospheric air, and touched with a lighted taper, they will detonate in the air.

Experiment 21. If a portion of detonating oil, (Chloride of azote) be heated to 212°, a violent explosion will ensue; or,

Experiment 22. If a portion of the same oil, of the size of a pin-head, be brought in contact with olive oil, the effect will be still more violent. See Detonating oil.

Experiment 23. Take ten or fifteen grains of Higgins's fulminating powder, and expose it to heat on a shovel: detonation will follow. See Higgins's Fulminating powder.

Experiment 24. If oxalate of mercury, to the amount of three or four grains, be struck with a hammer, a detonation will ensue, in the same manner as with the nitrous etherized oxalate of mercury, or Howard's fulminating mercury. See Mercury.

Experiment 25. Take some of the detonating powder, prepared from indigo, and wrap it up in paper, and strike the paper with a hammer: an explosion will ensue. See Detonating powder from indigo.

Experiment 26. If some gunpowder be placed on the stand of an electrical discharger, and the electric spark passed through it, combustion, with a detonation, will be produced.

Experiment 27. If some gunpowder be wrapped in tin foil, and placed on a glass plate, and the two wires of a galvanic battery brought in contact with the foil; the foil will inflame and explode the powder.

Experiment 28. Mix in a mortar one part of sulphuret of potassa with two parts of nitrate of potassa, and expose the mixture to the action of heat in the same manner as fulminating powder: a violent detonation will take place. The sulphuret of potassa is recommended, in lieu of potassa and sulphur in a separate state; and although called Bergman's fulminating powder, this compound is in fact, according to the theory of its explosion, the same as the ordinary fulminating powder.

Experiment 29. If, says Morey, (Silliman's Journal ii, 21), a given quantity of strongly compressed boiling water, be suddenly discharged into about an equal quantity of oil or rosin, at or near the boiling point, it will explode, to every appearance, as quickly and violently as gunpowder.

Experiment 30. If zinc or iron filings, or pulverized antimony, be mixed with chlorate of potassa, and struck with a hammer, violent detonations will ensue. If sulphuret of iron be used, the same effect will ensue. See MM. Four[280]croy and Vauquelin's communication to the Société Philomatique, in their Transactions.

Experiment 31. If oxide of mercury, obtained from its solution in nitric acid by means of caustic potassa, be dried, and mixed with flowers of sulphur, and struck with a hammer, a detonation will be produced. (See Journal de Physique, 1779.)

Experiment 32. If alcohol or ether be mixed with chlorate of potassa, into a thick paste, and the mixture struck with a hammer, an explosion will be the consequence: or,

Experiment 33. If, instead of alcohol or ether, we make use of fixed or volatile oils, and proceed in the same manner, the same effect will ensue.

Experiment 34. If a small portion of chloride of azote (Detonating oil) be dropped into a solution of phosphorus in ether or alcohol, a violent explosion will take place: or,

Experiment 35. If in the place of phosphorized ether, other oils, as camphorated oil, palm oil, whale oil, linseed oil, sulphuretted oil, oil of turpentine, naphtha, &c. be brought in contact, the same effect will ensue.

Experiment 36. Chloride of azote will also detonate with sundry gaseous and solid substances, as supersulphuretted hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, phosphuretted hydrogen, nitrous gas, aqueous ammonia, phosphuret of lime, ambergris, fused potassa, and sundry metallic soaps. Messrs. Porret, Wilson, and Kirk, brought one hundred and twenty-five substances in contact with it, and twenty-eight of the number produced detonations. (Nicholson's Journal, vol. 34.)

Experiment 37. If a small quantity of ammoniacal nitrate of copper be wrapped in paper, or in a piece of tin foil, and struck with a hammer, a detonation will ensue.

Experiment 38. If a small portion of arsenic and chlorate of potassa be mixed, and smartly struck, a flame will be produced, accompanied with an explosion; or,

Experiment 39. If the same mixture be touched with a lighted match, it will burn with considerable rapidity; or,

Experiment 40. If it be thrown into concentrated sulphuric acid, at the instant of contact, a flame will rise into the air like a flash of lightning.

Experiment 41. Heat a portion of deutoxide of chlorine: when the temperature arrives at 212°, an explosion will take place, and chlorine and oxygen be evolved.

Experiment 42. If prussine gas, otherwise called cyanogen, or carburet of azote, be mixed with atmospheric air, in the proportion of about one to four in volume, and the elec[281]tric spark made to pass through the mixture; a violent detonation will result, leaving a mixture of carbonic acid gas and azotic gas.

Experiment 43. If a mixture of equal parts of nitrate of potassa, and titanium, be thrown into a red-hot crucible, detonation will follow.

Experiment 44. Melt some nitrate of potassa in a crucible, and bring it to the state of ignition: now throw in a small quantity of pulverized zinc, and a very violent detonation will take place.

Experiment 45. If one part of zinc filings and two parts of dry arsenic acid be distilled in a retort, or exposed to heat in a crucible, the moment it becomes red, a detonation will be produced.

Experiment 46. If a few drops of deutoxide of hydrogen, or the oxygenized water of Thenard, be let fall on dry oxide of silver, a violent action will follow, accompanied with an explosion. Several other oxides have the same effect.

Experiment 47. If a portion of black wadd, an ore of manganese found in Derbyshire, England, be brought in contact with linseed oil; the oil will take fire, producing sometimes slight detonations.

Experiment 48. Take a portion of the brown oxide of tungsten, formed by transmitting hydrogen gas over tungstic acid, in an ignited glass tube; mix it with chlorate of potassa, and strike the mixture with a hammer: a loud detonation will ensue; or,

Experiment 49. Heat some of the brown oxide in the air. It will take fire, and burn like tinder, passing to the state of the yellow oxide, or tungstic acid.

Experiment 50. If one measure of oxygen gas, and two measures of hydrogen gas be mixed in the explosive eudiometer, and the electric spark passed through them, a detonation will ensue, and a complete condensation take place.

Experiment 51. When equal volumes of protoxide of azote, or gaseous oxide of azote, (called also nitrous oxide), and hydrogen gas, are treated in the same manner, the mixture will explode, leaving a residuum, consisting of azotic gas.

Experiment 52. If two measures of carbonic oxide or gaseous oxide of carbon, and one measure of oxygen, be submitted to the action of the electric spark, a detonation will ensue, and the carbonic oxide will be changed into carbonic acid.

Experiment 53. If one measure of carburetted hydrogen[282] gas, either the heavy or light carburetted hydrogen, called also the hydroguret and bi-hydroguret of carbon, (the former being sometimes called olefiant gas), be mixed with two or three measures of oxygen gas, and the electric spark transmitted through them; a detonation will ensue, forming water and carbonic acid.

Experiment 54. If one measure of cyanogen, (carburet of azote), be mixed with two and a half measures of oxygen gas, and treated with the electric spark, the mixed gases will explode very loudly. The cyanogen burns, in this case, with a blue flame; although it is usually of a purple colour. The products of combustion are carbonic acid and azote. (See Experiment 42.)

Experiment 55. If one measure of arsenuretted hydrogen gas, (obtained from an alloy of three parts of tin and one of arsenic, by treating it with muriatic acid), and two measures of oxygen gas are mixed together, and the electric spark is passed through the mixture; a detonation will ensue, and water and arsenious acid be formed.

Experiment 56. If potassium be made to act upon a compound of chlorine and sulphur, called chloride of sulphur, an explosion will immediately ensue; but,

Experiment 57. If potassium be dropped into chlorine gas, inflammation only will take place, accompanied with a vivid light, forming chloride of potassium, (dry muriate of potassa.)

Experiment 58. If sulphuret of potassium be heated in the air, it will burn with great brilliancy, forming sulphate of potassa; but, if mixed with chlorate of potassa, and struck with a hammer, a violent detonation will be produced.

Experiment 59. If potassium be heated in sulphuretted hydrogen gas, it takes fire, and burns with a vivid flame, and pure hydrogen is set free; thus proving that sulphuretted hydrogen gas, although inflammable itself in oxygen gas, is a supporter of combustion for potassium.

Experiment 60. If phosphuret of potassium be exposed to the air, it will inflame spontaneously, forming phosphate of potassa; but if it be dropped into water, it will produce a violent explosion, in consequence of the immediate disengagement of phosphuretted hydrogen gas.

Experiment 61. If potassium be moderately heated in the air, it inflames, burns with a red light, and emits alkaline fumes.

Experiment 62. If potassium be thrown upon water, it acts with great violence, burning with a beautiful light, of a[283] red colour, mixed with purple, the water becoming a solution of potassa.

Experiment 63. When sodium is heated strongly in oxygen or chlorine, it burns with great brilliancy; but it does not inflame, when thrown into water. It is converted, however, into soda. If it be heated in oxygen gas in excess, it burns, and is converted into the peroxide of sodium, which, when mixed with combustible bodies, and exposed to the action of heat, deflagrates with violence, giving off its excess of oxygen, and becoming changed into soda, or protoxide of sodium.

Experiment 64. When sulphuret of sodium is mixed with chlorate of potassa, and struck with a hammer, a detonation will ensue; and when sodium is heated nearly to fusion, in contact with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, it will unite with the sulphur; flame will be produced, and hydrogen gas set at liberty. A sulphuret of sodium is thus formed, which is usually combined with some sulphuretted hydrogen.

Experiment 65. When a mixture of ammoniacal gas, in a dry state, and oxygen gas, is submitted to the influence of the electric spark, in the explosive eudiometer, explosion will take place, and water and azotic gas result.

Experiment 66. If potassium or sodium be heated in fluoric gas, a rapid combustion takes place, in all respects as brilliant as in oxygen gas.

Experiment 67. If gallic acid be placed on a red-hot iron, it burns with flame, and emits an aromatic smell, similar to that of benzoic acid; but, if mixed with chlorate of potassa and struck with a hot hammer, a detonation will ensue. Various vegetable acids, as the benzoic, which is highly inflammable, produce similar effects.

CHAPTER IV.

OF SCENTED FIRE-WORKS.

There is a variety of scented fires, all partaking, in a greater or lesser degree, of a peculiar flavour, according to the substances, which enter into their composition. It is a fact, that, in the ordinary odoriferous fire, into which, either the so called scented gums, or essential oils, enter as a component part, these substances are not only decomposed in the act of combustion, but evolve, during that process, a part of[284] their respective odours, to which we attribute the scent imparted to the atmosphere. In those instances, in which gunpowder forms a part of the composition, it is to be remarked, that the peculiar smell of fired gunpowder is scarcely recognized, owing to the preponderance of the scent in the composition. Hence it is, that scented fire-works are more calculated for confined places than for the open air.

Scented fires are various both in their nature and composition, and may always be so modified, as, in their effect, to produce, not only the particular flame, or appearance of the fire, but the extrication, along with the gaseous products, of the odour of the essential oil, or other substance made use of.

Linnæus, in a dissertation on the odours of different substances, endeavoured to classify them. M. Lorrey (Mémoires de la Société Royale de Medicine 1784) divided them into five classes; viz. camphors, narcotics, ethers, volatile acids, and alkalies; but it is obvious, that it is an impossibility to class all the odours which exist, and may be formed by the mixture, or combination of various substances. We may consider them either pleasant, or unpleasant to the sense of smelling. But as we recognize bodies very frequently by their odour, with which we become familiar, as camphor and assafœtida, for instance; so the olfactories may be affected by other odours. Aromatic and fetid odours are opposite to each other. Some of the gases, as the olefiant, have a fragrant smell, and others, as hydrogen, and sulphuretted hydrogen, either alone or mixed, are extremely unpleasant. The intestinal gas (gas intestinaux of the French) is a particular instance of the odour of a compound gas, or mixture of gaseous fluids. The experiments of M. Jurine of Geneva, of MM. Chevreul and Magendie, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. ii, 294), of M. Vauquelin, (Journal de Pharmacie, t. iii, p. 205), and of MM. Lameyran and Fremy, (Bulletin de Pharmacie, t. 1, p. 358), are interesting on this subject. Intestinal gas differs in its composition. It always contains carbonic acid gas, and azotic gas, and hydrogen gas, either pure, or combined with carbon and sulphur. Thenard (Traité de Chimie, iii, p. 576) contains some observations on this subject.

In the camphor odour, Lorrey includes not only camphor itself, but various species of laurel, myrrh, and turpentine. In the narcotic odour, he embraces opium, various gum-resins, roses, lillies, jessamine, &c. and musk, amber, and cas[285]tor. In the ethereal odour, different kinds of ether. Under the odour of volatile acids, he considers that of fruits, aromatic barks, citron; and under the alkaline odour, the acrid, and, in general, the antiscorbutic plants. Fourcroy, in treating of the aroma of plants, or the spiritus rector of Boerhaave, (Bulletin de la Société Philomatique, an. 6, p. 52,) has some interesting facts on this subject.

It is evident, that perfumes, so called, owe their peculiar fragrance to an essential oil, which characterizes each kind; for the essential oil obtained by distillation, partakes of the odour of the plant. Hence the oils of mint, roses, thyme, cinnamon, cloves, &c. &c. all of which are peculiar in this respect. Odoriferous fire-works owe their particular properties to the presence of some gum, resin, or oil. As to the expansibility, or rather the divisibility of odour, several interesting facts are known. In a work, entitled l'Existence de Dieu, par les merveilles de la Nature, we are informed, that, if we take the one-fourth of a drachm of benzoin, and place it in the four corners of a room, the odour will be recognised in an instant. The chamber in which the experiment was made, the author states, was 24 feet by 16, and contained 9212 cubic feet of air, which, multiplied by 1000, would give 9216000 inches, and 1000000 parts of an inch were rendered appreciable. Therefore, he infers, that 9216000000000 are equally perceptible in the chamber. Prevot (Bulletin de la Société Philomatique, an. 6) has some observations of the same nature, respecting camphor. If such are the effects with benzoin, what, we may ask, would be those of the more powerful perfumes, such as musk? One grain, or perhaps the tenth part of a grain of musk, would scent the atmosphere of a room very perfectly.

De Laval (Description of the Maldiva Islands) mentions the use of scented fire by the inhabitants, in the celebration of their festivals. On the day of every new moon, they place at the entrance of the churches, and the gates of their houses, cocoa shells cut in the middle, and filled with white sand and burning coals, upon which they burn, almost all night, sweet scented gums and woods; and at the nocturnal festival, called maulude, the night on which Mahomet died, their halls are illuminated with a multitude of lamps, and the air is filled with the smoke of perfumes. The use of scented fire appears to form a principal part of their devotional exercises. Perfumes are even burnt on the graves of deceased persons.

Having mentioned the use of odoriferous plants in scented[286] fire, we may add, that all plants possess some peculiar character, if aromatic, which, as one of their characters, serves to distinguish them.

The qualities of plants are said to be similar, when they have the same taste and odour. The odours of plants, Richard divides into 1. Fragrant, 2. Aromatic, 3. Ambrosiac, or resembling amber, 4. Alliaceous, or resembling garlic, 5. Fetid, 6. Nauseous. The three first are innoxious.

In the composition of scented fire-works, it is also to be observed, that gunpowder does not always form a part; and hence their character is various, according to the purposes they are applied to, or their uses.

In the odoriferous water balloons, (for which, see aquatic fire-works), we have, for instance, along with saltpetre and other substances, in the different compositions, either amber and flowers of benzoin; or frankincense, myrrh, and camphor; or amber, cedar raspings, and the essential oils of roses and bergamot; or the saw-dust of juniper, cypress, camphor, myrrh, dried rosemary, cortex elaterii, and oil of roses. These are the substances, therefore, which enter into the different compositions, in the order here given, and which impart to the fire an odoriferous character. The relative proportions may be learnt, by referring to the chapter on Aquatic fire-works.

Scented fires are, however, little used. Their effect is nevertheless agreeable in close rooms; but in the open air they lose this property, or rather it is not perceptible, owing to its extreme division.

The vases of scent were greatly employed in the public feasts and ceremonies at Rome, Athens, and, above all, in Egypt. In temples, palaces, &c. they were mostly used. The vessels, which contained the composition, were placed by the Athenians in sculptured or painted vases, as well to hide their appearance, as to serve for ornament.

Sec. I. Of Pastilles.

Pastilles, or fire crayons, are small conical troches, in the form of a loaf, of one and a quarter inches in height, and about an inch thick. They are made of the following composition, which is moistened with rose-water, having some gum arabic previously dissolved in it. The paste is made neither too thick nor too thin, but of a sufficient consistence to work with the hand.

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Composition of Pastilles.

The pastilles are burnt upon a plate, and communicate to the air an agreeable odour.

Odoriferous paste.

The dry substances are pulverized very fine, and mixed intimately together, and the oil of lemon and tincture of amber then added. The whole is then made into a thick paste with common mucilage, and formed into pieces as before mentioned. These pieces ought to be conical. When used, they are placed on a stone, or a piece of metal, and inflamed. This composition is said to burn with scintillations, and to exhale a very fragrant and agreeable odour. See Dictionnaire de l'Industrie.

Perfume for Apartments.

These ingredients are mixed into a paste in the usual manner, with orange flower water, and a small quantity of gum. A small portion, when dry, thrown on ignited coals, will exhale an agreeable odour.—Ibid.

M. Brillat-Savarin (Archives des Découvertes iii, p. 328) has invented a machine, which he calls the irrorateur, for[288] perfuming apartments. He objects to the ordinary mode of perfuming by fire, and sprinkling odoriferous fluids in a room. His irrorateur consists of a small fountain, which, by compression, forces out the odour required, and may be conveyed to any place.

Sec. II. Of Vases of Scent.

We observed, that these vases were much in use at the public feasts and ceremonies of the Athenians, Romans, and Egyptians.

Composition for the Vases.

These substances are pulverized, and intimately mixed, and oil of juniper is added. The mixture is put in an earthen vessel, having a cotton, similar to a wick, supported by means of a wire. Among the ancients, the earthen vessels were afterwards placed in sculptured, or otherwise ornamented vases. By using stone-ware vessels, and mixing the composition with the spirit or oil of turpentine, the combustion will be more rapid, and the flame more enlarged.

Sec. III. Remarks on Spontaneous Accension.

The spontaneous accension of spirit of turpentine by the addition of nitric acid, might furnish also a means of preparing a scented fire extemporaneously; by putting into the vessel, previously to the spirit of turpentine, the composition above mentioned. See Nitric Acid, in the article Nitre.

An extemporaneous fire may also be prepared, by placing, on the scented mixture, the following composition, namely, chlorate, or hyperoxymuriate, of potassa and sugar, and touching the mixture with a glass rod dipped in sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol. The fire will then communicate to the other materials. See Chlorate of Potassa and the article on Pyrophori.

Camphor, which imparts an agreeable odour, may be readily inflamed in this manner, and the experiment even be made on snow or ice. See Camphor.

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Sec. IV. Of Torches, and Odoriferous Flambeaux.

Flambeaux are usually wax torches. Odoriferous flambeaux may be formed by melting with the wax, camphor and frankincense, and mixing with the whole, when fluid, some of the essence of bergamot. Although there are no directions given on that subject; yet, judging from analogy, a mixture of that kind would be an improvement on the flambeau, when it is to be used in rooms or for particular occasions. They may be made either large or small, with a wick of a proportionate size.

Torches are principally used for military purposes, to give light, when an army is marching at night, during sieges, &c. They ought not to be extinguished by wind or rain. The Torches inextinguibles, of the French, are of this character.

Torches are made in the following manner: Take four large cotton matches, three or four feet long; boil them in a solution of saltpetre, and arrange them round a pine stick. Afterwards, cover them with priming powder and sulphur, made into a thin paste with brandy. When dry, they are to be covered with the following composition:

Composition for torches.

The second composition is that which is used in France, and, therefore, in all likelihood, is the best formula. The flame may be more or less scented, by using, at the same time, some of the aromatic substances before noticed. This, however, is unnecessary for common purposes. See Fire-works used in war. The flambeau, invented by Petitpierre,[290] (Bulletin de la Société d'Encouragement, No. 102), is intended to give light to apartments.

Sec. V. Remarks concerning Odoriferous and Fetid Fire.

Fire-works may be made extremely unpleasant to the olfactory nerves, by mixing with their compositions, sundry substances of an opposite quality to odoriferous oils and aromatic gums. It will be sufficient, however, to remark, that this effect is communicated more particularly, as in the stink-balls of service, by using sulphur, rasped horses' and asses' hoofs, burnt in the fire, assafœtida, seraphim gum, and sundry fetid herbs or plants. The addition of the acid of amber, called succinnic acid, and, in the shops, the salt of amber, will give to the atmosphere in the vicinity of the fire, the peculiar property of causing a continual sneezing and coughing. Such are some of the opposite effects, which different substances produce in conjunction with fire-works. Some of these substances, it is obvious, would, if used in too large a proportion, retard, if not entirely prevent the combustion; and for that reason, they bear only a given proportion to the powder, nitre and charcoal, which forms the basis of some, as, for instance, the stink-ball composition. But in such cases, the combustion being in itself rapid, and the degree of heat consequently proportionate, these fixed, and otherwise incombustible bodies, in a general sense, are acted upon by the fire, already created; and, therefore, the smoke that results must necessarily possess, and partake of the fetid qualities of the substances employed. On the same principle, we may account for the effect of the scented paste, and the scented vases; but with this difference, that many of those substances are themselves inflammable, and, during their decomposition, emit the odour peculiar to each of them. We know, that the elementary principles of these bodies are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, variously combined, some of which are, and some are not inflammable; and that, in combustion, when it takes place, they are decomposed and new products necessarily ensue from a new arrangement of the elementary principles.

It is difficult, however, to give the precise order in which decompositions by fire result; since the substances made use of are numerous and employed in given proportions; and since their action upon each other, depends frequently on external agents, anomalous circumstances, and causes which do not follow at all times the same order of succession.[291] Generally speaking, however, we may obtain such a datum, all things being considered, a datum derived from the known laws of chemical decomposition, as will furnish a rationale to explain both the cause and effect. See General Theory of Fire-works.

There is no doubt, that, by the action of fire on fetid, and particularly animal, substances, as hoofs, &c. products may be formed in the very act of combustion, which would increase the fetid properties of the smoke. Zimome, obtained from the gluten of wheat by alcohol, which takes up the gliadine, when thrown upon red-hot coals, exhales an odour, similar to that of burning hair or hoofs, and burns with flame. The pyro-products are the immediate consequences of the decomposition of the substance; the elements of which either separate entirely, or recombine under some other form, as we find in the process of destructive distillation.

Bones, and other hard parts of animals, when subjected to distillation, furnish several products, as impure ammonia, animal oil, and the like. Wood also, we remarked, when treating of its carbonization for the formation of coal, produces, besides gaseous and other volatile products, the result of its decomposition, a quantity of acid liquor, formerly called the pyroligneous, but now the pyroacetic acid. By separating the empyreumatic flavour, which at first constitutes a part of the acid, the acetic acid is obtained in a state of purity. The pyro-tartaric acid is also the result of the action of heat; and we know, when animal substances are calcined with potash, they produce cyanogen, the basis of the hydrocyanic and ferrocyanic acids, the latter of which when united with the peroxide of iron, forms the perferrocyanate of iron, commonly called Prussian blue. Caromel also, that peculiar substance which is disengaged from sugar and various saccharine substances, when submitted to the action of heat, is a product, resulting from the decomposition of the sugar. The empyreumatic, or burnt flavour of certain distilled liquors, which is corrected by redistillation with charcoal, or passing the liquor through a filter of charcoal, is owing to the same cause. The changes, that bodies undergo by partial roasting, are familiar to every one; as, for instance, the torrefaction of barley, after germination, in the preparation of malt, the degree of which determines the colour and taste of the beer; the roasting of rye and coffee, before they can be employed to form a beverage; and the torrefaction of the cocoa, before it can be made into chocolate, the sweet taste[292] and brown colour of which are acquired in the process, are all examples of the effect of heat on bodies. The action of heat, according to its temperature, produces, therefore, effects of a particular kind; and, as we regulate the heat in such cases, we form products of different kinds. Destructive distillation, however, would again change the character of these products. Of this kind, we may consider the effect of the heat, produced in the combustion of inflammable substances. In a word, the action of heat may be so graduated, in the same manner as the tempering of steel, as to produce only partial changes, which must ensue at certain temperatures; or, by an increment of heat, in which a total decomposition takes place, the effect is regulated, by the force of affinities, exerting their influence under modified circumstances. Hence we perceive, by reasoning a priori, that as substances are altered by the action of heat, so they produce new compounds, according to the circumstances of the action, and with or without the agency of foreign bodies. These facts are so far applicable to the subject under consideration, as to enable us to explain, or account for the effects that result on the mixture, or combustion, of bodies, a knowledge of which is undoubtedly necessary to form a theory of fire-works in general.

CHAPTER V.

OF MATCHES, LEADERS, AND TOUCH PAPER.

We purpose, in the fourth part of our work, to go into the detail of the manufacture of various kinds of matches, which belong more particularly to military pyrotechny, adding, at this time, that fire matches are differently formed, and are called the quick and slow match. The former is commonly made of three cotton strands, drawn into lengths, and put into a kettle, and just covered with vinegar, (usually white wine vinegar), a quantity of saltpetre and meal powder being added, and the whole boiled together. Some put only saltpetre into water, and, after soaking the cotton, place it, while hot, in a trough with some meal powder, moistened with some spirits of wine, or brandy, which are thoroughly worked into the cotton, by rolling it backwards, and forwards with the hands. When this is done, they are taken out separately, and, after being drawn through meal powder, dried upon a line. Another mode is to steep the cotton first in vinegar, and then rub into it the following composition:

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Composition for quick-match.

To the proportions of one pound and three-quarters of cotton, one pound of saltpetre, two quarts of spirits of wine, one pound of meal powder, and three quarts of water, some recommend the addition of four ounces of isinglass, dissolved in three pints of water.

Another method is to steep the matches in brandy, and then rub them well with priming powder.

Slow match is made of hemp, or tow, spun on a wheel like cord, but very slack, and is composed of three twists, which are afterwards again covered with tow, so that the twists do not appear. It is finished by boiling in the lees of old wine. This, when lighted at the end, burns gradually, without going out.

There are several modes of preparing slow match. There is also, a kind of slow match, which is slower in carrying fire than the preceding quick match. The quick match, for this purpose, is drawn through the following composition, which is melted, and the operation is continued until it attains the size of a small candle; it is then hung up to dry.

Composition for a slow match.

When these matches are used, they are to be lighted, and then blown out. If well made, they will burn a long time. They may be used for communicating fire from one work to another. Another slow match, used for common purposes, is made by soaking hempen cord in the following ley:

Lixivium for slow match.

The cords are put into a pot, and boiled for two or three days, renewing the lixivium from time to time, as it evaporates. They are then taken out and dried. Good match makes a hard coal. Its duration depends upon the quality of the materials; but, generally, four inches will last an hour.

Further remarks on this subject, will be found in the fourth part of this work, in which the various modern improvements are given.

The preparation of touch paper, for capping of serpents, crackers, &c. may be here noticed. The directions of artists are: To dissolve in spirits of wine, or vinegar, a little saltpetre, and immerse into the solution, some purple or blue paper, and dry it for use. There is no advantage gained by using either spirits of wine, or vinegar: for the simple solution of the saltpetre in water, will be sufficient. In the former case, it may dry sooner, but neither of these fluids can add to the effect of the saltpetre.

In using this paper, care must be taken to prevent the paste which is made use of, from touching any part, that is to burn. The method of using it, is by cutting it into slips, sufficiently long to go once round the mouth of a serpent, cracker, &c. When they are pasted on, be careful to leave a little above the mouth of the case not pasted; then prime with meal powder, and twist the paper to a point.

The mode of threading and joining leaders, and placing them on different works, we shall here describe. The observations of a writer in the Encyclopedia Britannica, vol. xv, p. 713, are pointed on this subject, which we will briefly notice. Joining and placing leaders, is a very essential part of fire-works; as it is on the leaders that the performance of all complex works depends. The works being prepared, and ready to be clothed, the pipes must be cut of a sufficient length to reach from one case to the other; and then put in the quick match, which must always be made to go in very easy. When the match is in, cut it off within about an inch of the end of the pipe, and let it project as much at the other end; then fasten the pipe to the mouth of each case, with a pin, and put the loose ends of the match into the mouths of the cases, with a little meal powder. This being done, paste over the mouth of each case, two or three bits of paper. This method is used for large cases.

The practice adopted for small cases, and for illuminations, is the following: First, thread a long pipe; then lay[295] it on the tops of the cases, and cut a bit of the under side over the mouth of each case, so that the match may appear, and then pin the pipe to every other case, observing, before the pipes are put on, to put a little meal powder in the mouth of each case. If the cases, thus clothed, are port-fires on illuminated works, cover the mouth of each case, with a single paper; but if they are choaked cases, situated so, that a number of sparks from other works, may fall on them before they are fired, secure them with three or four papers, which must be pasted on very smooth, that there may be no creases for the sparks to lodge in, which often set fire to the works before their time. Avoid, as much as possible, placing the leaders too near, or one across the other, so as to touch; as it may happen, that the flash of one will fire the other. If the works should be so formed that the leaders must cross, or touch, they must be made very strong, and well secured at the joints, and at every opening.

When a great length of pipe is required, it must be made by joining several pipes, in the following manner: Having put on one length of match, as many pipes as it will hold, paste paper over every joint; but, if a still greater length is required, more pipe must be joined, by cutting about an inch off one side of each pipe near the end, laying the quick-match together, and tying them fast with a small twine; after which, cover the joining with pasted paper.

Leaders, or pipes of communication, are formed of paper, which is cut into slips three or four inches broad, so that, when it is rolled on the mandril or form, it may go three or four times round. When they are very thick, they are too strong for the paper which fastens them to the works, and will sometimes fly off without leading the fire. The forms for these leaders are made from two to six-sixteenths of an inch in diameter; but four-sixteenths is the size generally made use of. The forms are made of smooth brass wire; and, when used, they are to be rubbed over with grease, or wet with paste, to prevent their sticking to the paper, which must be pasted all over. In rolling of pipes, make use of a rolling board, but press it lightly. Having rolled a pipe, draw out the form with one hand, holding the pipe as light as possible with the other, and avoiding any unnecessary pressure. Leaders are made of different lengths; and, in cutting them, as is often the case, care must be taken to do it with as little waste as possible. Leaders for marron batteries must be made of strong cartridge paper.

The Etoupille of the French is the same as the former[296] match; it being nothing more than a kind of quick-match, prepared by soaking three threads of cotton in a paste, composed of the best priming gunpowder and brandy. It is designed to communicate fire with promptness, from one part of a fire-work to another, and, therefore, has the same effect as the common cotton quick-match. The cotton is usually soaked, or steeped in a paste of gunpowder and brandy, neither too thick nor too thin, for the space of two hours, adding more of the brandy as it evaporates. In the French preparation, gum arabic is used, in the proportion of one ounce to a pound of powder. In the English preparation, isinglass, or fish glue is employed, in the proportion of four ounces dissolved in three pints of water. Gummy and gelatinous substances are calculated for no other purpose, than to make the powder adhere to the cotton, the quantity not being sufficient to retard the combustion of the match. Pipes or leaders of communication, are an essential part of fire-works, and hence great care and attention are required in preparing them. Cotton, prepared in the manner already described, is the substance generally made use of. It has the property of imbibing fluids with facility; and when spirit of wine, or brandy, or even water, is used, it absorbs, and mechanically combines with the gunpowder, the impregnation with which determines the quality of the match. Alcohol, deprived of as much water as possible, or, in other words, the most concentrated, appears to have an advantage over brandy or water. If it be used merely as a vehicle, in order to suspend the gunpowder, and likewise to carry it, as it were, into the fibres of the cotton, which appears to be its modus operandi, then it is undoubtedly preferable to either brandy or water. The former, as it never exceeds fourth proof, contains always a considerable quantity of water; and, therefore, as water decomposes gunpowder, by dissolving the nitre, and separating the sulphur and charcoal, on which it has no effect, it is obvious, that the gunpowder itself, when mixed with brandy, is more or less injured. It is true, however, that the cotton in that case would be more effectually saturated with the nitre; but it does not follow, that it would be saturated with the gunpowder; as two of its component parts, viz. the charcoal and sulphur, would be separated. We have seen, that touch paper is nothing more than paper, soaked in a solution of, and consequently impregnated with, nitre; but, in order to render a match more combustible, and convey fire with more rapidity, which is required in many[297] cases, gunpowder is the only substance, that possesses this property in any degree.

The cotton, which is used for this purpose, is the same as that for candle wick, and, with respect to thickness, may be from one to six threads, according to the pipe, it is intended for. The pipe must always be large enough for the match, so that the match may be pushed in easily without breaking it. After it is doubled into as many strands as required, it is usually put into a flat bottomed copper, or earthen pan, and there boiled in a solution of saltpetre. It is then taken out, and coiled into another pan, and the remaining solution is poured on. Meal-powder is then put in, and pressed down, till it is quite wet. It is then wound upon a reel, keeping the hands moistened with the powder and fluid of the last kettle, and suffered to remain a short time; when it is taken down, and meal-powder sifted on both sides of it, till it appears quite dry. When dry, it is cut, and secured in skins.

There is one advantage in this process, that the cotton in the first place is saturated with nitre; and, in the second place, while still wet, is combined mechanically with the meal-powder. The match I apprehend, is in all respects equal to the etoupille of the French.

The priming paste, as it is called, consisting of meal-powder and brandy, may be preserved in close vessels for a length of time; and, when used, may be brought to a proper degree of consistency, to be worked, by the addition of more brandy.

The preparation of the etoupille, or match for communicating fire, will be given at large, when we treat of military fire-matches. It will be sufficient to remark, that its preparation, according to Bigot, (Traité d'Artifice de Guerre, p. 74), consists in macerating the cotton in vinegar, then pressing it, and steeping it in brandy, and afterwards working it in a paste, composed of meal-powder, gum arabic, camphor, and brandy, and then rolling it on a table with meal-powder.

In preparing all kinds of matches, we may increase or lessen their effect by increasing or diminishing the quantity of gunpowder. By combining powder and sulphur with one or more parts of melted wax and rosin, in the manner before mentioned, and immersing the cotton into it, a match will be formed, which, for some purposes, is considered preferable to the ordinary kind.

The following proportions are given for preparing 100,000 priming fusées, or matches:

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CHAPTER VI.

OF THE FURNITURE, OR DECORATIONS FOR FIRE-WORKS.

By the term garniture, used by the French, we understand the furniture, equipage, embellishments, or decorations for sundry fire-works, as rockets, bombs, batteries, fire-pots, &c.

Sec. I. Of Serpents.

The directions, given for the formation of serpents, are the same in Morel and Bigot. Paper is rolled lengthwise on a mandril, or form, which is a quarter of an inch in diameter, of three thicknesses, according as it is stout, and the last turn of the paper is pasted. They are made tight and strong, and strangled first at one end. They are then put upright in a square or round box, called a bushel, for the purpose of charging them. For this end we must have a small mallet, and a rammer of brass, of a smaller diameter than the form. The composition is put in and rammed, proportioning the number and force of the blows to the size of the case. The petard is formed, with extremely fine powder, then rammed, and the case choaked. To prime them, we open the ends with a piercer, and by means of a spatula introduce a portion of priming paste, or priming powder, in order that the fire may communicate.

We may here remark, that large cases for serpents, as well as wheel cases, are driven solid. There is usually a mould, in which is a nipple, with a point at top, that serves, when the case is filling, to stop the neck, and prevent the composition from falling out. The air, in that event, would get into the case, and cause it to burst. These sorts of moulds are made of any length or diameter, as the cases are required; but the diameter of the form must be equal to half the caliber, and the rammers solid.

Lardons are of much the same nature as serpents, but are[299] made stronger. They are charged in the same manner. To prime them, they are first pierced about five or six lines (or half an inch,) in depth, which presents a greater surface to the fire, and produces, when inflamed, more scintillations than serpents.

Composition of ordinary serpents.

The serpents or snakes for pots of aigrettes, small mortars, skyrockets, &c. are made from two and a half inches, to seven inches long. Their formers are from three-sixteenths to five-eighths of an inch in diameter; but the diameter of the cases must always be equal to two diameters of the former. They are rolled and choaked like other cases, and filled with composition, five-eighths of an inch to one and a half inches high, according to the size of the mortars or rockets, they are designed for. The remainder of the cases are charged or bounced with grained powder, and their ends pinched and tied close. Before they are used, their mouths must be primed with wet meal powder or priming paste as before-mentioned.

Serpents, or snakes, in fire-works, are so called from the particular appearance, and the effect which ensues, namely, a hissing and spitting. This peculiar character is given by the charcoal; for, while one part is actually consumed, in immediate contact with the substances that enter into the composition; another part is thrown out with violence in the state of ignition, in the form of sparks, and receives, for the support of its combustion, the oxygen of the air, in consequence of which carbonic acid is produced.

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Sec. II. Of Crackers.

Crackers are made in the following manner; cut some cartridge paper into pieces, three and a half inches broad, and one foot long. One edge of each paper fold down lengthwise, about three-quarters of an inch broad. Then fold the double edge down one quarter of an inch, and turn the single edge back half over the double fold. Open it, and lay all along the channel, which is formed by the folding of the paper, some meal powder. It must now be folded over and over till all the paper is doubled up, rubbing it at every turn. It is now to be bent backwards and forwards, two and a half inches or more, as often as the paper will allow. These folds are to be held flat and close; and, with a small pinching cord, give one turn round the middle of the cracker, and pinch it close. Bind, as usual, with pack thread, in the place where it was pinched. Prime one end of it, and cap it with touch paper. When these crackers are fired, they will give a report at every turn of the paper. If there are to be a great number of bounces, the paper must be cut longer, or be joined after they are made. If, however, they are made very long before they are pinched, there must be a piece of wood, having a groove sufficiently deep to let in half the cracker, which will hold it straight, while it is pinching.

The report, produced by crackers, is on the same principle as the report of a gun. The reports, which succeed each other, in crackers, formed in this manner, depends, as we remarked, on the turn of the paper, each turn producing that effect. Every part of the cracker, by this division, represents in fact a gun; and hence, as the combustion of one part necessarily succeeds that of another, we have, according to the number of turns, successive explosions.

Crackers, formed in this way, may furnish a variety in exhibitions. They may be either hung on a board, or set off on the ground. As to the report itself, it may be increased or diminished by enlarging or diminishing the size of each cracker, or division.

Crackers, as they are usually called, are nothing more than small cases charged with gunpowder. The Chinese squibs are crackers of this description. Some are four ounce cases; but the squibs, so named, hold about half a thimble full of powder. A piece of twisted match paper is inserted in the mouth of each of them. They are made of five or six turns of paper, and the last one is pasted and formed of red paper. The interior diameter is about a quarter of an inch.

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Sec. III. Of Single Reports.

Cases for reports are generally rolled on one or two ounce formers, and seldom made larger, except on particular occasions. They are from two to four inches in length, and are formed of thick paper. Having rolled a case, pinch one end, quite close, and drive it down. Then fill the case with grain powder, leaving sufficient room to pinch at the top. Before it is pinched, a piece of paper is to be put on the powder at the top. Reports are fired by a vent bored in the middle, or at one end. Among the portable Chinese fire-works, reports form usually a large number. They are closed with clay, which is perforated to admit the match and priming.

Sec. IV. Of Serpent Stars.

There are a variety of compositions, used to produce the appearance of stars. Thus, there are stars of different colours, which also produce tails of sparks, scintillations, more or less vivid, &c. and are calculated for particular exhibitions. The serpent stars, however, have a different object, namely, to imitate a star at first, and afterwards a serpent.

The cases for serpent stars are choaked half an inch lower than the common kind; and, after filling the hole with meal powder, the following composition is put in. It is finished, but without the operation of choaking, by adapting a piece of quickmatch, and adding more priming powder.

Composition for serpent stars.

This is the formula, given by Morel; but the formulæ of Bigot are in some respects different, namely:

Serpent stars are of two kinds. The one is intended as the furniture for rockets, &c. and the other, when moulded, to be employed in the Roman candles.

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When required to be moulded, or made into cakes, the composition is mixed with gum and brandy, into a paste, which is spread upon a table, having previously covered the table with meal powder. Small cubical or other shaped pieces are cut out, sprinkled with meal powder, and dried in the shade. The meal powder serves as a priming, so that they may all take fire at the same time. The composition may be formed into balls.

Serpent stars, being designed to produce a combined effect, it appears, that, while charcoal, (and, in some instances, the sulphur, according to the formula, but more especially the charcoal), imparts the serpentlike appearance, the antimony, in its turn, diversifies the flame by giving to it an asteroid character. The antimony, used in these compositions, is not the regulus, but the crude, or common sulphuret. Metallic antimony, however, would produce the effect in a greater degree: but as sulphur enters into their composition, and also into the crude antimony, there would be but little, if any, advantage, gained in the use of the regulus.

Besides the ordinary products of the combustion of gunpowder, or similar products, by employing nitre, charcoal, and sulphur, the antimony, by its combustion, would be changed into an oxide, or, if the combustion is sufficiently rapid, and the quantity of oxygen absorbed proportionate thereto, it would form the antimonic acid. That it is oxidized, however, and that during its oxidizement, the appearance we have mentioned takes place, there can be no doubt.

Sec. V. Of Whirling Serpents.

Serpents, prepared in the following manner, have a peculiar effect, by which they are characterized. They form in the air a kind of whirling sun; and, as they revolve by reason of their fire issuing out at the opposite sides of their extremities, they resemble the sun turning on its axis.

Barker's hydraulic machine, described in Gregory's Mechanics, which is put in motion by two opposite currents of water, acting from the two extremities of an oblong box, supported by a perpendicular hollow shaft, through which the water first passes, acts upon the same principle as this revolving sun. The ascension of rockets is also to be accounted for in the same way. See General Theory of Fire-works.

The whirling serpents are charged entirely with composition. No grain powder is used. A small paper stopper is rammed on the top of the composition. Near the two chokes,[303] but in opposite sides, the cases are pierced with small holes, which are made to communicate with each other, and with the composition, by means of a short leader or match.

Sec. VI. Of Chinese Flyers.

Somewhat similar to whirling serpents are the Chinese flyers. Cases for flyers may be made of different sizes, from one to eight ounces. They are formed of thick paper, and are eight interior diameters long. They are rolled in the same manner as tourbillons, with a straight pasted edge, and pinched close at one end.

The case, being put in a mould, whose cylinder, or foot, must be flat at top, without a nipple, is to be filled within half a diameter of the middle. Then ram in half a diameter of clay, and, on that, as much composition as before; and again put in half a diameter of clay. Pinch the case then close, and drive it down flat, and afterwards bore a hole exactly through the centre of the clay in the middle. In opposite sides, at both ends, make a vent, and, in that side, intended to be fired first, a small hole to the composition, near the clay in the middle, from which carry a quickmatch, covered with a single paper, to the vent at the other end. Then, when the charge is burnt on one side, it will, by means of the quickmatch, communicate to the charge on the other, which may be of a different sort.

The flyers being thus prepared, put an iron pin, that must be fixed in the work, in which they are to be fired, and on which they are to run, through the hole in the middle. On the end of this pin, must be a nut to secure it. If they are required to turn back again, after they are burnt, make both the vents at the ends in the same side, which will alter its course the contrary way.

These flyers are intended to revolve on an axis, and to discharge at different periods. For this purpose, a communication is made from one vent to the other. It is evident, that the clay, which occupies the middle of the case, is intended to prevent any communication of fire, in the tube, from one end to the other, as this is effected on the outside.

Sec. VII. Of Simple Stars.

The stars, which are not made upon the former, or roller, serve to furnish bombs and rockets. They are made in the following manner: The composition being well mixed, and passed through a fine sieve, is made into a paste, with gum arabic[304] and brandy. The proportion of the gum to the composition, is as one to sixteen. The composition is spread equally on a table, about the thickness of a finger, and cut into small square pieces. They are then covered with meal-powder, which will serve for priming, and are dried in the shade.

Composition for Simple Stars.

This is the general composition, however, for stars.

Sec. VIII. Of Rolled Stars.

It will be sufficient to remark, that rolled stars are formed of the same composition as the simple stars. The composition is mixed with gum and brandy, formed into a paste, spread upon a table, and cut, by a circular instrument, into pieces of the size of the Roman candle, of which we shall speak hereafter. They are primed with the best pistol powder, and dried in the shade. See Roman Candle.

Sec. IX. Of Cracking Stars.

Cracking stars are nothing more than small marrons. They are primed, and covered afterwards with star-paste, in the same manner as meteors. They are employed as furniture for serpents and stars. They are rolled in meal-powder, before they are used. They are the étoiles à pet of the French.

Sec. X. Of Sundry Compositions for Stars designed for Various Purposes.

We purpose, in this section, to present a connected view of the different star-compositions, by merely introducing the formulæ for their preparation. Their application will claim our attention hereafter, when we treat of rockets and other works.

Rocket Stars.