Practical school discipline
Date: 2021-04-24T00:00:00+00:00
Keywords: School discipline; Teachers

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Title: Practical school discipline

Applied methods, part 1

Author: Ray Coppock Beery

Release date: April 24, 2021 [eBook #65152]

Language: English

Credits: MFR, Barry Abrahamsen, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from images made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL SCHOOL DISCIPLINE ***

Practical School Discipline—Applied Methods Part 1

PRACTICAL
SCHOOL DISCIPLINE
Applied Methods
PART I
By
RAY C. BEERY
A. B. (Columbia), M. A. (Harvard)
President of
International Academy of Discipline
PLEASANT HILL, OHIO, U. S. A.

Copyrighted, 1917, by
RAY C. BEERY
────
Copyrighted, Great Britain, 1917
All Rights Reserved

Dedicated
to the
Members of the J. A. D. Teachers’ Club
❧
“He that ruleth his spirit is greater
than he that taketh a city.”

GREETING

With this second book of Practical School Discipline, we wish to send to each member of the Teachers’ Club our personal word of greeting. Applied Methods was written for you. Primarily it was written for you only. It is a book to help teachers, by means of teachers’ experiences. We believe it will lighten your work, brighten your school room, and lengthen your years of effective service by easing the friction in daily school routine. Work can no longer be drudgery when conducted according to principles which take the drudgery out of it.

Because we have faith in the principles herein discussed, we are desirous to learn from each member of the “Teachers’ Club” what the result has been in his or her individual case. Have you been particularly successful in the management of some difficult situation? Write and tell us about it. Have you failed to find your own specific problem treated within these pages? Tell us that also. Perhaps we can help you by letter.

The Teachers’ Club is a coöperative organization from which we expect the most stimulating results—results which can be made much more effective by personal correspondence with its members. Your experience may help another who is still struggling with the difficulty which you have overcome. Another teacher’s experience may help you. Our offices are clearing houses for exchange of views and mutual aid. Coöperation we believe to be the principle which eventually must supplant, throughout the world, the cruder method of competition. The members of the “Teacher’s Club,” the first and only one to be organized upon this plan, will be quick to recognize the higher ideal and to respond thereto.

Finally, if the better understanding of the principles herein treated, and the tonic effect of interchange of ideas with fellow teachers who appreciate your difficulties and who desire to assist, should prove helpful to you, then tell other teachers about your Club. Perhaps they might profit also by the same mutual help. Meanwhile our thought for you does not end with placing these Case Books on Discipline within your hands.

PREFACE

The readers of Applied Methods will note that in the discussion of problems which confront the teacher the “case citation” plan peculiar to legal and medical writers is here followed. That is to say, instead of long enumerations of general principles relating to disobedience, impoliteness, dishonesty, etc., specific cases or incidents are cited, followed by “constructive treatment” or suggestions for treating each specific case. It is believed that this method will be more helpful and more suggestive to the ordinary teacher than is the usual method.

To make the suggestions still more helpful, because more personal, the reader is asked to transfer himself after the citation of each case from past time to present, and from the other teacher’s school to his own room; and, in the “constructive treatment” which follows, imagine the “Case” to be the reader’s individual problem, and the author to be conversing with him personally.

In the preparation and collation of the cases it has been thought more practicable and also more convenient for the teachers, to divide the subject matter of the text into two volumes rather than to combine all into one large book. There will be no break in the continuity of thought, however. The second volume, like the present, will follow the case citation plan and will continue the treatment of school disturbances which develop for the most part out of natural instincts of children.

CONTENTS

DIVISION I

| PAGE
Introduction | 13

DIVISION II

Obedience | 27

DIVISION III

Concrete Cases on Obedience | 49

DIVISION IV

Concrete Cases Arising Out of Self-preservative Instincts | 129

DIVISION I

DISCIPLINE

INTRODUCTION

Discipline is three-fourths of life.

—Matthew Arnold.

INTRODUCTION

1. Why Discipline Is Necessary

There are no two persons in all the world, however separated by space or circumstances, who do not in some way affect each other. This influence is unseen and untraceable in most cases; it is only when the relations are very immediate and obvious that we realize how unified is the life of the people on the earth. The welfare of the whole race is tied up in the welfare of each man, woman and child; and so it is the duty of each to work for the welfare of all his fellows. When each person controls his actions and contributes his influence so as to further the interests of all, present and future, the world is in harmony, civilization progresses and happiness reigns on earth.

But it is not natural for people unselfishly to strive for the good of all other people. All men are born with strong instincts of self-preservation, and their limited outlook upon life, their small knowledge of remote things, often prevents their seeing that, in the end, social action best protects their own interests.

Instinct urges, “Look out for number one. Enjoy yourself. Catch at the immediate good, for you are not sure of the future.” Something higher than instinct in man says to him, on the other hand, “Deny yourself for the good of others. Find a greater life in the life of the race. Endure hardship now, submit to privation, that in the future you and others may be more happy.”

It is this higher standard of thought and action which we call right; it is passive submission to the dictates of selfish instincts which we call wrong. Right and wrong have other phases than these of social effect, but upon these most men, of whatever faith or philosophy, agree; and these social phases are the ones which affect the whole problem of discipline most. Briefly, then, we may say that for our purposes those things are right which contribute to the welfare of men, and those things are wrong which interfere with their happiness and progress.

The great men and women of the world are they who make the richest contribution to human progress and happiness. They are the artists, the thinkers, the givers of every kind, who leave their fellows better for their passing by. They who in their coming and going add nothing to the sum of human welfare, are the paupers, the criminals, the imbeciles. Paupers may live in palaces, and criminals may for generations receive great honor of men, but unless they have really made the world better, men in their final judgment can not count such glorious rascals among their friends. They are not civilization-builders, they are not race-leaders, nor have they real strength in themselves, for they have never conquered those selfish instincts which dominate men in the lowest stages of their development.

The big problem of mankind, then, is to make of the naturally selfish and self-centered individual a helper in a great social enterprise, that is, to make him nothing less than a contributor to the evolution of the whole race toward its final high estate. How can this be done? And who is to do it? These questions are fundamental to human progress. Men have been grappling with them for centuries. This is a great world-question which, looming behind the more immediate problem of discipline, gives it all the significance it has. It is because through disciplinary processes the world is to be made better, and not primarily because such processes will make schools more orderly and homes more delightful, that we study the subject and hope to become skilled in the practice of its technique.

The responsibility of making each person a contributor to social progress rests largely with those who hold in their hands the training of the young. Hence such training is, in a peculiar sense, the business of parents and teachers. Not for long have people worked intelligently toward the socialization of human interests. Christ taught this doctrine nearly two thousand years ago in Galilee, but only lately have very many persons realized that His message is a practicable one. The Middle Ages were given to an effort to realize the gospel individually; today we see a great effort to apply it universally. But the individualism of the past still dominates the thinking of the older generation; selfishness and prejudices, which are intrenched in tradition, seem altogether justifiable to peoples whose children will fully realize their inadequacy and falseness.

It is in these children that the hope of the race inheres; these are they who must bring about the new order of things. Not in reforming the adult criminal, not in making the adult pauper a producer, not in making the adult individualist a humanitarian, lies the true secret of world-betterment, but in rearing a new generation which shall meet the old problems with instincts controlled, powers trained, and with a potent altruism that has been developed from impulse to habit and from habit to conviction.

Society is sadly taxed to care for its undisciplined members. Alms-houses, slums, jails and prisons are filled with the more hopelessly uncontrolled, while every forward movement is hampered by the indifference or opposition of those whose individualism is of a more mild and respectable type. It is from the ranks of the undisciplined that all trouble-makers come; it is the disciplined soul who not only makes his own life successful but who gives freely for the advancement of others.

These premises involve strong claims for discipline. If it is true that discipline bears this close and vital relation to human progress, then it is indeed a topic for the closest and most careful study. Before the reader can judge for himself of the claims made, he must know more of the nature of the discipline for which so much is claimed. For the discussion of its nature he is referred to the following paragraphs.

2. What Is Discipline?

We have seen that all human beings are closely knit together, interdependent and mutually influential; and that the success of the community depends upon the individual contributions made by persons whose attitude is a socialized one. We have seen also that the socialized attitude, the will to contribute to the general good, while frequently conspicuous among even savage peoples, finds higher and ever higher expression, as civilization advances. Since “the greatest good to the greatest number” is “social good,” it follows that the more this evolved, altruistic attitude can be made to exist and function, the happier mankind will be; and persons who have the good of the race at heart will try to find means of developing the socialized attitude in large numbers of their fellow-men. Since it is easy to form the minds and wills of children, and hard to remake grown persons who have become fixed in individualistic ways of thinking, feeling and doing, this hopeful process seems to belong inherently to childhood.

Discipline in its true meaning is not “punishment.” It is the training of every power to the end that it may be controlled and used for personal good and social service.

A well-disciplined person, may have every instinct, trait and ability under perfect control and still not choose to use these highly-trained powers for the good of mankind. For him discipline has failed of its proper end.

A good disciplinarian, then, is one who helps each person for whom he is responsible to bring those powers under control and to use them in such a way that he shall become a useful member of society. The disciplinary process may be subjective or objective—that is, it may be self-imposed, or directed by another person. In most cases it is directed from without in early childhood, but becomes more and more a matter of volition and self-direction as the subject approaches maturity and realizes more the necessity for self-control. He then becomes his own disciplinarian.

Whether the disciplinarian be engaged in his own training or that of others, he must have a definite aim in view. The lack of such definite aim is one reason why there is so much poor discipline.

“Say, ‘Thank you’ to the lady,” the mother directs her child, not because she wants that child to develop a spontaneous skill in expressing his sense of obligation to the society that has nourished him, but because she has a vague feeling that this is the conventional thing to do and so her child must do it. This imitative, traditional type of disciplinary training is far better than none, but it fails of the splendid results that come from training given with an intelligent understanding of its nature and objects.

Therefore the trainer, to be the very best trainer possible, should have an illuminating conception of the great trend of human progress which is advancing the good of all. He should feel keenly that every thought and act which contributes to human welfare accelerates the rate of progress; that whenever an individualist opposes his will, his interests, his institutions to that onward moving stream, he hinders its flow and causes suffering to some one. Such an individualist needs discipline; he needs to learn to subject his selfish ends to the social ends of the race. Public opinion may open his eyes to his mistake; if he offends too far, society may force him to stop stemming the tide, or put him entirely out of the stream by shutting him up in prison, where he can do less harm. Criminals, then, are those who retard the stream of progress. They may do this in ways that society recognizes and punishes, or in ways too slight for society to take notice of, or in ways which society does not yet see to be really harmful. But whether their wrongdoing is punished or not, they are the enemies of mankind. They are the “undisciplined.”

Babies, and older persons of defective powers and limited training, are solely the creatures of instinct. In a state of nature the immediate ends of self-gratification and self-preservation are so urgent that any others have little reality for primitive beings. The cave man could not see that by coöperating with his neighbor, he gained more than he could gain by fighting him. It required long, tedious trial and repeated effort, to teach men that they might trust judgment to supplant instinct or at least to control it. All these ages of experimentation and effort since man was in a primitive condition are now compressed into the childhood of every member of civilized society, through an elaborate training process which we call education; and an “educated” person is one who has learned to live with his fellow-men in cheerful and profitable coöperation.

Having a clear idea of the nature and importance of discipline, two kinds should be noted carefully. There is a discipline which takes the child while still in a very plastic condition, and shapes each instinct and ability as it develops toward usefulness and righteousness. There is another which deals with children or grown persons whose habits and attitudes are already formed, but wrongly formed. These persons seek to change and remake until they approach at least a better standard. That is to say, there is constructive or anticipatory discipline, and corrective discipline.

Obviously, that type of training which works with fresh material in Nature’s own time, is the more economical and efficient. The child who learns right behavior at the start, whose growing powers are subjected to proper control before they wax too lusty for easy government, is the child who is best disciplined and therefore most amenable to high appeal. Such a child is a fine citizen in the making. Wise parents and teachers, therefore, watch for the appearance of new traits, and anticipate the development of the successive instincts, by planning a constructive treatment, for each situation. They do not allow things to go wrong; they keep them right, rather than keep righting them. Even with such watchfulness, as a matter of fact, much corrective discipline is necessary, especially in schools; but the amount, even when dealing with children from the worst homes, can greatly be reduced by employing constructive methods consistently.

3. Causes of Children’s Wrongdoing

Much of the trouble with children could be obviated if teachers only understood the real causes of wrongdoing. There are hardly more than six such causes that are fundamental.

1. Untrained Instinct. This is the basic cause for trouble. The first of all the instincts to develop, that of self-preservation, in its many manifestations, brings one into endless conflict with social custom; and so with each of the other instincts. The need here is for both inhibitory and developmental training; the child must be led to deny expression to his instincts if they are harmful to his social relations, and must be encouraged to free and repeated expression of those impulses which grow from his altruistic instincts.

It is instinctive for a child to give his attention to the most appealing of the many stimuli about him. Therefore his natural impulse is to look out of the window at the passing wagons, automobiles and people, rather than to look at the uninteresting arithmetic which he is supposed to be studying. When he has been led consciously to deny this instinct until the lesson is learned he is well disciplined in this one respect.

The development of judgment goes hand in hand with the growth of the power of inhibition. Much trouble is caused because people expect, often justly, a degree of judgment in a child which he has failed for some reason to develop. A fifth grade boy, for instance, was very anxious to make a perfect grade in spelling. His sister did this easily and his family taunted him with being beaten by a girl. In his anxiety to win he cheated, and was caught; whereupon he was driven to lying in an effort at self-protection, and thus became enmeshed in a series of humiliating and dishonest acts. Here the boy’s judgment, ideals and will-power were all weaker than a fifth grade boy’s should be. His habits, heretofore honest, yielded to the temptation of the situation, because his instincts of emulation and self-esteem were stronger than the powers developed by training.

At some point in this boy’s training, or more probably at many points, the discipline which should have prepared him for such a situation was weak or wanting. We may assume that every child will meet situations in which he will find strong temptation to be dishonest, ungenerous, unclean, lazy, self-indulgent. It is the disciplinarian’s duty to prepare his charge for these situations, by seeing that the boy has learned to keep his instincts in leash, and that he is supplied with ethical standards, clearly and concretely defined, with which he may compare the new situation in order to gain a standard for his decision. Nor must he be unpracticed in making decisions at an age so critical; he should often have gone through the process of examining, comparing, evaluating and determining.

2. Failure to Comprehend the Reason for Demands Made. Man is a reasonable creature, and one of the first signs of his growth is his demand for reasons. There is no insult to authority in a request for reasons, as so many parents and teachers seem to think; there is merely the righteous wish to be an intelligent, rather than a blind coöperator—to wish to play the social game with open eyes. Perhaps the one greatest cause of trouble in home and school in disobedience. This may come from a number of causes, but when it is not a bid for attention or a mere imitative action, it comes from one of these two causes as a rule:

(a) A resentful feeling that the act demanded is being imposed upon the pupil without any adequate reason. This comes from a lack of knowledge of the nature of things, and is best met by a frank explanation of the reasons for asking the thing demanded.

(b) Lack of faith in the one who gives the direction. Often the reason for giving the direction is beyond the comprehension of the child; sometimes there is no time nor opportunity for explanation. In such cases the child should obey, not because he knows why, but because he believes that his parent or teacher has a good reason and is to be trusted to direct wisely. Parents who never condescend to explain their reasons, teachers, who say, “You are to do this because I say you are to do it,” are not building up this kind of trust in children.

3. Mere Imitation. Imitation is really one of the instinctive causes, but it persists past the stage when most of the other instincts have been subjected to control, and it plays so important a part that it needs a separate treatment. Bad manners of all kinds, vices, even the attitudes of mind which dictate conduct are copied by children from their elders and from each other. Children are often punished, when parents or elder brothers and sisters are to blame. Teachers need to know the home-life and environment of their charges, if for no other reason than that they may analyze the influences that go to make up their pupil’s attitude toward control.

4. Desire to Attract Attention. Teachers realize that what some pupils do simply and directly as an unconscious expression of personality, good or bad, others do because the doing of it puts them in the limelight. They want attention, admiration, astonishment, sensationalism in some form or other.

5. Abnormal Physical Conditions. When a teacher suspects that bad behavior grows out of poor hearing, poor sight, adenoids, subnormal mentality, malnutrition, nervous excitement, or any other physical cause, he should apply a test at once and find out the truth. Tests, simple enough to be used by any intelligent adult, have been devised for all defects liable to be found in schools. Having ascertained where the trouble lies, the teacher should next consult a specialist or physician as to corrective measures. The attitude of teachers toward pupils who offend, often changes abruptly when it is discovered that a physiological defect lies back of the apparent badness; the pupil becomes a patient, to be treated, rather than a criminal to be punished. If teachers would remember that mental defects also are as real and as amenable to treatment as physical ones, they would see themselves always in their true characters of physicians to boys and girls who need a specialist’s help.

6. False and Perverted Ideals in Society. Lastly, society, for whose good we train the pupil out of his littleness and selfishness into breadth and altruism, even society itself harms him frequently by setting before him false ideals, bad examples, inadequate standards. Society wants its members to practice self-control, but it allows them to buy and sell drugs which destroy the power of self-control. It wants them to lead moral lives, but allows every inducement to immorality to be presented to them. It calls to unity and harmony, but fosters discordant elements in its own fabric. Sometimes these social influences for evil may be controlled by the teacher, sometimes they are beyond his power to touch; but if only the teacher can learn to recognize the sources of such influences when they affect his own problem, he has gained much.

DIVISION II

OBEDIENCE

Where justice reigns, ’tis freedom to obey.

—J. Montgomery.

OBEDIENCE

Obedience is a subject of paramount interest in the minds of administrators. They seek for hearty, sympathetic, genuine loyalty to those in authority, for this constitutes the greatest safeguard against failure as a teacher. Although obedience is but rarely alluded to in the best schools, its very perfection is the explanation of this silence. Nor is its value less because of the high standard of conduct in such a school.

1. OBEDIENCE IN RELATION TO SCHOOL EFFICIENCY

Discipline and effective instruction in school are based upon obedience. Disobedience, then, is the teacher’s most serious problem.

The school is an especially organized community. It has its internal interests; its chief aim to be attained; its regular head and a variety of relations between teacher and all who attend, patronize or support the school.

School obedience is nothing more nor less than the continuous act of fitting one’s self as a pupil into a social machine. A pupil who is disobedient at every point can not be a pupil in fact. In proportion as a child is disloyal to the school, he cuts himself off from connection with it.

In the school community, adults are appointed to lead. The state, town, school district appear before the child and say, “This way.” The school board stands as an agent of the district or town, and actively supervises the school. The superintendent and teacher make specific the plans that have been broadly laid down by the state and school board. Now a child has all of these individuals and bodies politic to heed if he enters school. He places himself in their hands. When he enrolls he pledges conformity to the plans established for the control of the school. Consequently disobedience is rebellion and anarchy. Obedience is quite as essential in a good school as in an effective army on a military campaign.

Every child is a citizen in the making. A citizen must live and toil in harness with his fellows. “Teamwork” is a necessity now more than ever before in human history. The home and the school are the finest training-grounds for developing skill in team-work. Obedience is the essence of such coöperation.

The smooth running of the school machine conserves time for effective instruction. Loose government wastes effort, is destructive to mental training, and hence a fatal obstruction to school efficiency. Every disaster in school management is more or less of a lesson in immorality, whereas training in good morals is the duty of the teacher. A good disciplinarian can, of course, turn these occasional errors in school government into educative experiences, but the fewer they are the more advantageously can the moral education of the pupils in school be accomplished.

2. OBEDIENCE IN RELATION TO CHARACTER BUILDING

The law of obedience is the only fundamental formal law of character building we know. Without yielding to some will other than our own we can not become greater than our immature selves. Disobedience is the pupil’s most serious offense against himself.

Perhaps it rarely needs to be said that until a pupil has learned at home or at school the art of submitting his conduct to the direction of another, he has no sure proof that he, himself, can guide his own career. Every person needs, at some point, to learn the lesson of self-direction. As a rule, this lesson is never learned except by social contact. Only he who has found out how to work as a member of a group of people has discovered the art of self-control.

As a matter of fact, every one is unsocial until by training he becomes a social being. The school has for one of its essential duties, this task of reorganizing the individual life so that the unsocial person attains adequate adjustment in association with his fellows. The core of this problem, therefore, is how to accept gracefully and heartily the course of action laid down by another person.

The community has a will on a large number of points. Unless the individual discovers and heeds this will, he must oftentimes run contrary to established customs and laws.

Furthermore, if an immature person hopes to profit from the experience of the past, he must show “docility.” That is to say, he must be willing actually to change his way of acting because he finds that certain forms of conduct do not turn out well. He must obey the “commands” that arise from human experience. In the process of yielding up his own will to the will of society, the child acquires the power to compel himself to obey his own commands. The ideals of conduct which he develops at home or school or elsewhere, will attain the force of commands and enable him to subject his impulses, aspirations and hopes to the domination of his noblest ideals.

We may point out, therefore, with certainty, that obedience is the law of life. Everyone may well be concerned that little children and older ones as well discover this fact.

3. THE ESSENTIAL NATURE OF DISOBEDIENCE

(1) Instinctive factors. In searching among the instinctive elements of human nature for the chief inner stimulus to disobedience we are led to that group which is designated by such terms as self-preservative, individualistic or egoistic. Both obedience and disobedience seem to be expressions of the same basal incitements. In the lower stages of existence the free will of savage and child meets with circumstances in which it must yield to an external plan of action if life is to be preserved or self-gratification secured. Obedience is the price paid for life and for the luxury of being satisfied.

In the case of disobedience the same stimuli operate; the proposed course of action appears hostile to the interests of the self and the person rebels. The gratification of the countless desires, tastes, expectations, choices, hopes, rights, etc., that the human person constantly carries with him occupy the forefront of attention always. Disobedience is nothing more nor less than a decision that some one or more of these egoistic demands is being carelessly or ruthlessly dealt with and that the person is going to seek gratification in another direction.

(2) The element of choice. We can analyze the disobedient state of mind, at least to some extent. The first factor that we meet is choice. Choice enters into disobedience in two forms: first, the choice between courses of action, between ideals. The teacher proposes one line of action. This suggests other alternatives; a choice is necessary. Second, there must be choice between yielding to the teacher and resisting his command.

The obedient child is hardly aware of this distinction as such. A disobedient pupil may readily agree that a proposed action is wise and opportune, but his dislike for the teacher appears in a decision not to heed the command. Strictly speaking, this is a partial obedience, in that the child consents to the wisdom and worth of the course of action, although, for reasons of prejudice, he refuses to heed the command. The decision not to heed the teacher is the crucial point in disobedience. If unwilling to obey, the pupil weighs the gains and losses and decides to disobey the teacher. Usually there is no very great gain to be had when this sort of action follows. More than likely there is personal prejudice, false pride, or some similar cause for the refusal to obey.

At times, to be sure, the disobedient pupil believes that he can not in reality trust his teacher. Confidence in the teacher is impaired or entirely lacking. Disobedience must follow in many cases where such is the state of a pupil’s mind.

(3) Confidence. Confidence underlies all loyal obedience. Confidence is faith in the person who proposes the action, a conviction that when he himself acts, he will satisfy in a large degree, the expectations of the one who obeys. A pupil always sets up certain standards by which he measures a teacher. If a teacher gives ground for the anticipation that his acts will conform to these standards, he has won his pupil’s confidence.

The chief modes of winning the confidence of pupils may be briefly stated: first, by the teacher’s loyalty to his own principles of conduct; second, by revealing an identity between these principles and those accepted by the school community and the pupil; third, by setting before pupils courses of action which are seen to be primarily developments of pupils’ own ideals.

Even kindergartners who do not secure obedience based on confidence, fail. Some members of the circle of children may have no working ideals of school behavior. These must be taught dogmatically to the child before even mere outward conformity to rule can be secured. If properly taught, if actually trained, in the essentials of good order, the child accepts as his own these necessary ideals, and thereafter a call to obedience is a demand for the child to do what he himself naturally regards as the best thing to do under the given circumstances. His reasons for deeming this the best thing to do may be few or entirely wanting so far as fundamental grounds are concerned.

Whether it be suggestion or social impetus, the love of system, or whatever it is that gives this ideal value in the mind of the child, we need not try to comprehend. The only point is that the obedience that belongs to good character is a willingness to do what the pupil regards as right under the leadership of another person. These ideals in the child’s mind that are reproduced in the commands of the teacher may be simple, perhaps mere images of muscular activity; nevertheless, they are the forecast of an activity which later develops into complex concepts that cover worlds of thought.

4. STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF OBEDIENCE

As a further preparation for the most fruitful study of the “cases” in disobedience we must examine the several stages and types of obedience.

Obedience may occur in two forms: first, formal obedience in which the will is not heartily enlisted in the act. Oftentimes there is positive rebellion, opposition of will to the command given. Second, intelligent, loyal obedience, in which the child yields the inner consent when he outwardly conforms to the teacher’s instruction. With this loyalty there may be, indeed, many counter attractions which occur to the child’s mind and cause him to hesitate, in a way, or to meditate over the gains and losses involved in his proposed course of action. He balances these possible ways of acting, but conscience speaks up and he yields obedience despite a lingering regret. As he reflects more and more, he finds increasing satisfaction in having followed the commands given to him.

(1) Formal obedience. The intellectual factor varies greatly in different circumstances. “Blind obedience,” loyal conformity to commands with no comprehension of the reasons for so acting, is a valuable asset. It seems needful in many cases in the life of young children to require conformity to unexplained commands. Says G. Stanley Hall, “About the only duty of young children is implicit obedience,” yet Kate Douglas Wiggin is right when she says, “Blind obedience to authority is not in itself moral. It is necessary in order that we may save children from dangers of which they know nothing. It is valuable also as a habit.” This unthinking acquiescence to the will of another is neither moral nor immoral; it is unmoral. It is a safety device for the young which precedes the development of judgment, as habit-forming precedes the making of moral choices.

As a child advances toward maturity he comes more and more to discover the reason why certain commands are laid upon him. Formal obedience is peculiarly likely to occur in younger children who for lack of experience can give small consideration to the reasons that underlie prudent action. They gradually shift from one type of obedience to the other as they learn the grounds for the customary ways of doing things.

The habit of obedience need not be fundamentally changed by this discovery of reasons. Children may well be expected to obey because they have confidence in a superior. Whatever groundwork of reason may be desired and granted will be a reinforcement of the impetus to obey; yet confidence must always be the ground of the obedience we aim to secure.

Montessori finds that there are three periods in the development of obedience in young children. In the first period, there is spiritual disorder; the child seems to be physically deaf, unable to hear commands.

In the second stage, the child understands the command and seems to anticipate pleasure in realizing it; but there is a palsy of will: he acts tardily and with dissatisfaction.

In the third stage, he obeys instantly, with pleasure and enthusiasm. As he acquires skill, he takes pride in his new achievement. He will readily learn to leave absorbing interests in order to obey.

Implicit obedience is to be required of children, even after they have attained the power of fully comprehending requirements laid upon them. There are often occasions in which time for explanation is insufficient. If the child develops the habit of always insisting upon an explanation simply because he can not understand it, teachers and parents will find themselves seriously handicapped. Even adults find it necessary to give instant and unexplained obedience when emergency calls reach them.

Again, explanations, though incomprehensible, are sometimes embarrassing, owing to the presence of other people or of circumstances in some involved situation. Explanation, in such cases, must be avoided, and the pupil at once heed the request. As in the case of the youngest child, so a mature person occasionally finds himself in a situation where a crisis demands obedience without an instant’s delay.

(2) Intelligent obedience. In what we term intelligent obedience, there is a fair understanding of why the act is required. For the most part, the commands of teachers are well understood by children in the public school. It takes but a short time to interpret the general significance of school requirements. In the world at large, as, for example, in manufactories, stores, mines and the like, the commands of superiors, in nearly every instance, carry with them a large degree of broad significance.

Without a doubt, a careful teacher discloses very generally the reasons why a specific course of action is recommended and required. Such procedure is a recognition of the mental powers of the pupils. They are treated as intelligent human beings when reasons for commands are offered. The teacher hopes to train pupils to use their power of free choice intelligently. This is done by revealing the grounds for proper conduct and securing the inner consent of the pupil’s intelligence to natural commands.

The presentation of reasons for a command also appeals to the good-will of the pupil. He presumes that his conduct is not always determined by authority, but that he is expected to act on grounds of his own loyalty and good-will. As a consequence, intelligent obedience normally results in an excellent comradeship between pupil and teacher. It begets a mutual understanding. It is a preventive of misconceptions and complaints by the pupil. Clearly enough, intelligent obedience is the mainstay in school discipline. The school, as a whole, is entitled to know very many reasons why the customs and procedures laid down by principal and teacher have been adopted.

To be sure, the giving of explanations to public school pupils will be determined partially by the grade and circumstances in which each pupil is found.

Willing obedience establishes a basis for any amount of moral instruction that a teacher may desire to give. The moral influence of the school wavers when uncontrolled, and the corresponding obedience falters. After willing obedience has become a school tradition, or an individual habit, the teacher needs no longer to exercise extreme caution as to favorable conditions under which he may give commands for new activities. He has established a general confidence. He is supposed to be trustworthy in large and small matters, and he may take great liberties in leading his pupils into new courses of action.

It is difficult for a teacher to believe that this high type of obedience can really be secured. The occasional tilts with rebellious pupils tend to cause him to adopt a method based upon blunt authority, and to apply this method far too often. Confidence in human nature, we may say then, has been shattered largely through applying to the majority a method of treatment which has been provoked and deserved by only a small minority. The teacher is too close to the details of critical cases of discipline to see the whole situation in its true perspective.

In other instances the teacher has an inordinate eagerness to use authority. Young teachers often enter the schoolhouse vowing vengeance on disobedient pupils. For such teachers to be over-severe is far too easy. They need to take a second look at the situation before them, instead of rushing in with heavy artillery. “A man who would regulate his watch with a crowbar would be considered an ass, but a person who thinks a child of delicate and nervous organization can be made bold by bullying is no better.”

All pupils are “delicate and nervous” in respect to some matters, at least. Even the roughest and crudest backwoods giant has a tender spot around which the ennoblement of character can be developed; if this point of vantage is lost, all hope of “saving” the boy’s better nature is gone.

5. FACTORS THAT MAKE FOR OBEDIENCE

The teacher takes up his work in a community where already many ideas, customs and standards of conduct are fully developed. He has much in his favor when entering upon his duty in the schoolroom.

(1) The public expects obedience. The general supposition is that the teacher is going to demand obedience. The community, the school authority, the parents and the teacher all anticipate that school obedience will be required. In many cases this is the chief virtue of a schoolmaster. His success is determined in the popular mind by the efficiency of his control in the schoolroom. This, all taken together, is a powerful force operating already in the direction of good conduct. Everybody’s mind is set, in a large degree, in favor of loyalty to the school.

(2) Pupils expect to obey. Nevertheless, the most important fact is that the pupil himself expects to obey. He may be watching for an opportunity to disobey in some particular, but such a pupil plans, on the whole, to heed his teacher’s requests.

“We need only reflect that this obedience which we treat so lightly, occurs later, as a natural tendency in older children, and then as an instinct in the adult to realize that it springs spontaneously into being, and that it is one of the strongest instincts of humanity.”[1]

1.  Doctor Montessori, The Montessori Method, p. 363. Stokes.

To be sure the child’s mind is often divided in a bewildering manner, when choosing alternative courses of action. Incentives, motives, tastes, longings, impel the pupil in many opposing directions. Education has for one of its prominent functions, the training of a child so that he may inhibit some tendencies and nourish others into action. A good teacher prunes and prods; he culls out and represses; he approves and disapproves (or ignores) what will make good character on the one hand, or will mar a soul on the other.

This is the method of all great educators. The outcome is the unification of personality; that is the organization of all the elements of conduct into a system. Perfection of character is the crowning achievement in such a program. For one whose character is correctly formed, obedience is a mere name, for a perfect character acts nobly always; the presence of another’s will wisely directing him adds no stimulus to his, because there is no resistance to ideals which are already sanctioned in his own soul. However, the teacher is dealing almost exclusively with unformed character. The child needs support to be enabled to do the thing he knows ought to be done. Speaking of a former teacher a pupil said, “She was not a good teacher, she let us do whatever we pleased.” This statement shows that the child recognized in his own mind two planes of desirable action, the lower plane of “what he pleases” and the higher plane of what he ought in justice to do. The story shows furthermore that the child rightly expects the teacher to hold him to the higher plane.

Dr. DeMott in his lecture on “The Harp of the Senses” says the boy was right who blamed his mother because she did not call from the window when she saw he was about to choose a wrong course of action. Even adults need help to do what they regard as their best. We easily understand the soldier boy who wrote from the Mexican border, “A fellow needs the thought of home ties to keep him straight.” Who has not understandingly read, “For the good which I would I do not; but the evil which I would not, that I practice?”

Pupils expect, therefore, that teachers will render them substantial assistance by training them to obey. They sense the presence of disorder and weak-will in a teacher’s character, and scorn any substitutes for a wholesome control of the school machine.

This fact constitutes a basis in the nature of the child upon which to build, from the first moment of contact with him, a stable ground-work of loyalty. With these conditions in favor of good government, and obedience in particular, no teacher is predestined to fail when he demands obedient conduct.

6. CAUSES OF DISOBEDIENCE

Any precise generalization covering all the causal factors that enter into a disobedient attitude is of course impossible. Certain factors obvious to all people and others discovered by careful observations embrace only a fragment of the facts and yet they are worth careful scrutiny.

(1) Causes within the child. As already noted the fundamental cause of disobedience in the child is a vague perception, a suspicion or a conviction that some of his interests are jeopardized by a proposed course of action. Selfish interests are ready to speak up and dictate to him what to do and what not to do. Lack of inhibitory habits often permits a quick expression of the impulse to take good care of their egoistic rights and interests.

The ordinary observer is prone to affirm that the chief causes for disobedience are to be found in the child himself. It is easy to make a long list of conditions which provoke him to disobey. Among these we may mention the following: poor health, bad habits, natural stubbornness, which is independence of spirit uncontrolled, mental dullness, eagerness for action, delight in pleasure, desires for popular esteem, perverted ideas of duty and the like. Beneath all these conditions the great irrepressive incitement is the eagerness of the self to satisfy the natural cravings that the inherited constitution continually develops.

(2) Provocation by parents. School administrators find it impracticable to attempt accurately to survey home conditions in the majority of cases, but many reports that filter into school through children reveal fairly well the circumstances at home which make obedience in school extremely difficult.

A genuine lover of children will make every effort to discern instigation to disobedience. Parents may take what seems to be at the time the easiest course: namely, to let the child do whatever he chooses, or the mother may not have the time and strength to insist that a child obey. Many parents sincerely desire to govern their children properly, but are ignorant as to how they may accomplish it.

Oftentimes children disobey as a means to attract attention to themselves; only in such a way do they receive consideration in the home. They have found it highly entertaining to be the center of a furor when they have been “naughty.” Parents have not learned to use the many forms of approval to satisfy the call of the child for notoriety.

(3) Causes in the teacher’s mismanagement. The teacher’s mismanagement must be named in enumerating the causes of disobedience. Here, perhaps, a “challenge” is the chief incitement to the child of the choice of obedience or disobedience, daring him to choose the latter.

Some foolish imp at times provokes teachers to lay before pupils very clearly what are the alternatives between which they must choose. It may go so far that the teacher says in so many words, “I dare you to break the rule.” This is an outspoken challenge and incites all well-made characters either to indignation or to actual rebellion. The implied challenge appears in an aggravating espionage, watching from the corner of the eye, too frequently questioning or checking up and snappish manners generally in enforcing obedience. The challenge may appear in the arrangement of circumstances, so that obedience is difficult, as when the teacher leaves the room with an exhortation to maintain good order during his absence. Every cautious teacher adopts the following resolution, “I will never, by word or deed, plan or project, purposely make it easier for a pupil to disobey than to obey.”

The second great fault in the teacher is blindness to actual conditions. There are several forms of ignorance that may be cited. The teacher or principal may not know that a whole body of pupils is prejudiced against him, or ridicules him or is waiting to precipitate a collision; that he is arousing community prejudice; that he has let slip clear evidence of disobedience; that he accuses the wrong child; that his fellow teachers despise him; that his manners are ridiculous and weaken his influence.

This disregard of facts may be due to lack of native insight, heedlessness of daily experiences, lack of social training or an exaggerated sense of self-sufficiency. Each teacher must find his own cure. The careful assimilation of the instructions given herein should effect a change in many a failing teacher.

Again, teachers usually fail to secure obedience if they themselves refuse to submit to authority. It is difficult, sometimes, for a person of strong will, well developed talents, and perhaps mature years, to yield cheerful submission to the requirements of his superiors in the school system; but the greater the personality, the more evident is the power of self-control and the consequent skill in so ordering one’s behavior as to fit properly into the school mechanism.

Sad to say, there are some teachers who are entirely out of place in the schoolroom. Neither by natural endowment nor technical preparation have they any equipment that suffices for the duties they have assumed. School life is to them abnormal. They do not sense the fine adjustments of pupil and teacher. They can not profit from experience as managers, or as directors of social activities. They blunder and stumble and fail. Perhaps for them the best hope is that they may soon discover their mistake in attempting to teach.

(4) Community conditions favoring disobedience. Often a teacher finds that the standards of action endorsed by the school community are such as to make his work as a disciplinarian extraordinarily difficult. The neighborhood heroes are those who have had long careers as bullies. Conditions of frontier life when rowdyism was the avenue to popular esteem still may dominate public opinion. There may be a general scorn of education and the teacher is placed upon the defensive from the very start. Very frequently religious and racial prejudices at once appear when the teacher becomes a little known. Circumstances of this sort require a broad knowledge of human nature and an ever resourceful tact on the part of the teacher. If he is a man of wide sympathies and considerable information, he will easily find a starting-point for a campaign of reform. A cautious foresight will suggest to him that the leaders of the community be enlisted as sympathetic patrons of the school, and as his own personal friends. He frequently associates with the people of the community in church and social affairs, and becomes familiar with the public enterprises of the community. As rapidly as possible, he makes himself a well-known exponent of the best sentiment found in the neighborhood. By thus identifying himself with the most progressive elements in the community, he leads by following, and enrolls among his firm friends those who might have become enemies.

The theory of obedience herein expounded is based essentially on comradeship between pupil and teacher. A good teacher and a typical public school pupil can easily find common ground and discover a satisfactory basis of coöperation. The teacher must lead, the pupil will follow. Under proper conditions obedience comes as a matter of course. When perplexities arise, specific counsel is needed, but the aim of every good disciplinarian is to cultivate the soil in such a manner that only the good fruit of loyal obedience will appear at the harvest.

In discussing the particular instances presented in the following cases, the purpose is to guide the teacher so as to forestall acts of disobedience as far as possible. With this, however, are numerous suggestions as to the best methods of dealing with pupils when they actually refuse to obey.

DIVISION III

CONCRETE CASES ON OBEDIENCE

Let thy child’s first lesson be obedience, and the second will be what thou wilt.

—Benjamin Franklin.

OBEDIENCE

I. FIRST AND SECOND GRADES

1. Wilful Disobedience

Children in the first and second years will be willfully disobedient only when they have not learned obedience at home. Children come to school ready-made. Their habits and ideals have been developed at home or upon the street. Many of these are entirely contrary to school standards, and moreover, are disapproved by common conscience.

Parents are often quite unable to comprehend the necessity for strict conformity to a teacher’s plans of instruction, or to the general rules for good school procedure. Often this is due to the fact that the parents have never taught the child the value of good order and obedience. The child rather has learned the many different ways in which he may evade his parents’ wishes. So he starts to school accustomed to disobey commands, as in the following instance.

CASE 1

The teacher, speaking from a distance, said,

Scattered Paper

“Helen, pick up the paper that is under your desk.” Helen paid no heed to the command. The teacher repeated her order,

“Helen, pick up that paper.” Still no response. Then said the teacher in a threatening voice,

“Helen, are you going to pick up that paper?” All eyes were now turned toward Helen. Here was an opportunity for notoriety.

“No, I don’t want to.”

The teacher now walked back to Helen; taking her by the shoulder she pushed the girl toward the paper. Helen resisted. The teacher then gave her two or three vigorous shakes and said in an angry tone, “Pick up that paper!” Helen complied, but the instant the teacher’s back was turned she made a wry face at her. During the recitation which immediately followed, Helen’s answers were short and scornful. The children all gave more attention to observing the relation between Helen and the teacher than they did to the subject in hand.

The teacher was at a disadvantage for two reasons: first, she was not near the child; second, she recalled home experiences by using a form of request Helen had heard at home and disobeyed scores of times, “Pick up,” etc.

Helen’s refusal attracted the attention of the other children to herself and like most children Helen liked to be noticed. Her final attitude toward the teacher paved the way for a repetition of the offense, with its promise of further notoriety as a reward.

How would you have managed Helen had she been in your own school? We suggest the following treatment for the next similar case that occurs.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Walk quietly back toward Helen’s desk. In a spirit of comradeship, make comments to several children about their work on the way to Helen.

Pause near Helen and show your friendliness by smilingly commending her work. Then center your attention upon the paper and putting out your hand, say to her so quietly that no one else hears, “Kindly hand me that paper.” Expect her to do so. There is little doubt but that she will hand you the paper with a smile. If she does not do so, tell her quietly that you will talk with her another time and rest the case there for the present. On your way back to your desk speak to one or two other children kindly about their work.

Make Helen your special study. See how she responds to the requests of other children at play. For some days be perfectly sure that your commands deal chiefly with acts which she wants to perform. For example, “Helen, collect the pencils.” “Helen, tell which story you like best.” “Helen, show Johnnie what page the lesson is on,” etc. Build up in her mind the fact that you are always her friend. Before many days have gone by she will obey any command you make.

COMMENTS

Addressing other children before and after speaking individually to Helen makes less of an event of your interview with her. This will avoid kindling her feelings of self-consciousness and gratification at being a topic of general attention. It also shows that you are not greatly disturbed by her attitude.

Nearness and friendliness envelop the interviews in the right atmosphere. By centering attention upon the paper, the child will see that you are not testing her suspiciously as to obedience. You simply want the paper.

By taking special note of Helen’s behavior you can use various ways of showing her your real attitude toward her, which is, of course, that of comradeship and helpfulness. If Helen senses any antagonism in her teacher, the breach will widen and obedience will be rendered the more difficult.

Helen may need help to see that her own will can not be safely urged against that of society as represented by pupils and teacher. She may be led to comprehend this matter if you carefully show her how the other pupils fall in with school ways of doing things.

How a tactful person may avoid a clash like that between Helen and her teacher, may be shown by the following story.

ILLUSTRATION

Dealing with a Ringleader

Some years ago a former teacher of experience, Mrs. J., was asked to substitute for a day in the second grade of a city school.

She keenly studied her pupils as they gathered in the room before school opened. Among them was a boy two feet taller than the rest, poorly dressed, dirty and rude even to viciousness, as he dealt with other boys. He heeded nobody’s request. Mrs. J. marked him as a typically disobedient boy. She went to him before the first bell rang and asked him in a very deferential way to lower the shades in the room to just the length which he thought would be best. As soon as school came to order she asked him what desk books would be used the first session. When the class was called for recitation she found something to commend in his work while approving that done by other pupils.

She treated him as deferentially as if he were as tractable as any one else and indeed he proved to be so. He studied hard all day. He spent the last intermission telling her of home difficulties.

As she bade the children goodbye at the close of school he said,

“I wish you’d teach again tomorrow.” A spirit of comradeship had changed the disobedient boy into a real friend.

2. Disobedience Due to Commands Unintelligibly Stated

A failure to obey a command may be wholly due to the child’s inability to understand just what is required of him. This is not really a case of disobedience at all. It only seems to be such. Since some teachers do not distinguish between willful disobedience and any unintentional failure to comply with a request, the following cases are treated under the caption of disobedience.

CASE 2

Penmanship

The subject of the day’s lesson was penmanship. The teacher said,

“Fill the sheet of paper on your desk with ovals. Leave a margin at both edges.”

The papers were collected and three out of twelve had no margins. Three children had not yet learned what “margin” meant.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Before using a command in which the word “margin” is used, test the dullest of the class by pointing to the margin in a book and asking what this unused space is called.

COMMENTS

Habitual slighting of commands on the part of pupils, even though there is a valid reason for it, has a tendency to make positive willful disobedience easier. The removal of all cause of misunderstanding is therefore important from a disciplinary point of view, as well as for the sake of the instruction itself. That such cause of misunderstanding may be removed by the teacher who is sufficiently thorough and painstaking in preparing the way for the understanding of a new lesson, is indicated below.

ILLUSTRATION

Busy Work

For busy work, a teacher drew circles and divided each circle into fourths. One fourth was left white, one colored red, one blue and one yellow. To prepare for this exercise she drew a similar circle the day before giving this work, and explained what “one fourth” meant.

Just preceding the exercise she tested the class by use of colored papers to be sure that each child knew the colors: red, yellow and blue.

She gave her commands very definitely and clearly. The result was a set of papers, on no one of which had a serious mistake been made. Every such satisfactory result in obedience strengthens the bond between pupil and teacher.

3. Disobedience Due to Inattention

Time spent in waiting to be sure every one can give his entire attention to class instruction is never wasted.

CASE 3

While Arthur was collecting the drawing papers the teacher said,

Getting Attention

“Open your Reader at the story we read this morning.” Five out of fourteen failed to obey this command. Attention was divided between Arthur and the teacher. Some had forgotten what was read that morning. The children looked at each other for the desired information. Both teacher and pupils expected delay. A better method to pursue hereafter would be the following.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

When all are in their seats, say quietly, “Take your Readers.” When every one has his book in hand give the page at which it is to be opened, or if the children do not yet read the numbers, turn the open book face toward them and say,

“Find this page.” Commend those who find it quickly and noiselessly.

COMMENTS

Habitual repetition of commands cultivates inattention. Instruction given in small sections seems to urge immediate attention. If no second command is given until all have obeyed the first one, the laggards will find the prompt pupils arrayed against them and they will try to dispatch their own work more quickly.

ILLUSTRATION

Folding Papers

The superintendent of a village school often brought visitors to the primary room and asked the teacher to have the children fold papers. The pupils had been taught to fold their arms after each step of work had been taken. When all arms were folded, a new command was given. These commands were given in a low tone of voice and it required only a very little effort to obey each one. The directions were something like this,

“Lay your paper on the desk before you.”

“Take the edge next to you and fold it to the edge farthest from you.”

“Open the paper,” etc.

The teacher waited every time until the pupils all sat with folded arms before the next command was given. This work was enjoyed by all, largely because each command was so clearly stated that it was easy to obey. There was no room for inattention.

II. THIRD AND FOURTH GRADES

1. Disobedience Due to Seemingly Impossible Commands

More and more frequently it is being discovered by teachers that what, on the face of it, looked like down-right obstinacy or disobedience really had behind it some physical or physiological handicap. Manifestly it is the teacher’s duty to try to discover that handicap in each individual pupil before administering a sharp reproof.

CASE 4

Slouching

Miss Snow’s experience will be of interest to teachers in the third and fourth grades. One morning Miss Snow said,

“Fill one page with this exercise in writing. Put both feet on the floor. Sit up straight and hold your pen correctly.”

James began his exercise but slouched over his work. Miss Snow saw him and called out,

“James, sit up straight.” He sat up, but stopped writing. A sullen look came over his face. Miss Snow said,

“James, you will get no recess until this writing is finished.” He sneered and stopped writing altogether.

When the other children stood to pass out to recess, James stood with them, and marched with them half way to the door before Miss Snow remembered her command. She then went to him, took him by the hand and none too gently led him to his seat saying,

“Do that writing before you leave this room.”

After the other children had all passed out, he took up the pen and bending over his work wrote the page and sullenly handed it in three minutes before the recess was ended. He was listless and inattentive throughout the next session.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Use the method of approval. Stand near the laggard. Encourage him with happy remarks about what he has already done soon after he begins. Give him the benefit of your support throughout his work.

If he slouches over his work, find the cause before trying to remedy the result. At the next intermission determine whether or not his desk is the correct height for him. Let another pupil his size see if it seems right. Give James a simple test to find out whether he can see his writing when sitting straight. If holding the pen bothers him, use the Montessori method for establishing its correct manipulation.

COMMENTS

Approval of what he does shows the child your attitude toward him. It helps to establish the friendship necessary between teacher and pupil in order that the best work be made possible.

Miss Snow made her pupil pay too high a price for the written work. It is deplorable to try to remedy a difficulty before its cause is understood.

ILLUSTRATION

Adenoids

Webbie sat with mouth open and tongue on under lip almost constantly. He never instantly obeyed commands, but watched other children and followed their lead. Work tired him too quickly. His teacher, Miss Smith, found her commands for him to close his mouth heeded for half a minute only. Her request, “Webbie, be ready to begin work,” was obeyed, but as soon as class instruction began, in a panic he watched other children and seemed to take his cue for work from them.

Miss Smith tested his hearing by standing behind him at recess time and quietly speaking to him. She found his hearing to be very defective. She decided by experiment on the playground that he could scarcely breathe with his mouth closed.

His parents were tactfully consulted and following the advice of their family physician, they had his adenoids removed. His hearing improved so that he heard and obeyed the teacher’s instructions.

2. Disobedience Occasioned by the Teacher’s Suspicious Attitudes

A suspicious attitude on the part of the teacher as to whether or not her commands are going to be obeyed weakens her control.

CASE 5

Miss Kuhn saw that Ella was slyly eating during school time. She said,

Eating

“Ella, stop eating in school.” Several times thereafter Miss Kuhn peered round her desk at Ella as if expecting to find her still eating. When her attention was called to the blackboard and her back was turned toward the children, several times she turned suddenly and looked at Ella. She was rewarded for her vigilance by finally seeing Ella chewing. Miss Kuhn seemed to congratulate herself on her keenness by remarking,

“Ella, didn’t I tell you to stop eating? I can tell what is going on even if my back is turned. You may stay in at recess.”

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

We would advise you in such a case to speak to Ella when no one else can hear, at recess or before or after school. Tell her you do not blame her for being tempted to eat, but that it is better not to eat during school time.

Smilingly tell her that you sometimes become so hungry that you can hardly wait until meal-time.

“What would you think of me if I walked about the room eating an apple or a piece of pie?”

Select some item on the matter of eating that you know Ella will consent to and ask for her compliance at that point. It might be this,

“If I find a better place to hang your lunch basket would you like to use it?”

Having shared with Ella her concern on the care of her lunch, you can offer suggestions that will lead her away from the practice of eating in school.

Find out if she is willing to coöperate with you in correcting the habit. As soon as this state of mind is apparent, if the circumstances are favorable, in a kindly mood tell her that you will take care of her lunch for her until recess so as to remove temptation from her. Extend your hand and expect her to give you the basket. Take care of it daintily for her and return it to her as soon as recess begins. Set the example of confidence between teacher and pupil by feeling sure your commands will be carried out. Show your confidence by your bodily attitude, face and voice.

COMMENTS

This method is based upon the efficacy of the two principles of approval and expectancy. Your approval is shown by the lack of faultfinding. You put yourself in a right attitude of comradeship with Ella by speaking to her in a kindly way about her misdemeanor. Your extended hand when asking for the lunch shows that you expect obedience. Friendship is further developed by your care for her property and prompt return of it at recess. Children are quick to respond to either confidence or suspicion.

ILLUSTRATION

Interruptions

Miss Hill was called into the hall by a visitor. As she left her schoolroom she gave no command as to what was to be done during her absence. She made no effort to catch the pupils in mischief by thrusting her head in at the door from time to time as some teachers do in like circumstances. When she returned to her room she asked no question as to what had been done during her few minutes of absence. She thus commended those who were quietly working,

“I am glad to note that the interruption that took me out of the room did not interfere with your work.”

3. Disobedience Due to Defective Motor Functions

CASE 6

Awkwardness

“Minnie, why don’t you rise and walk along with the other pupils when I call your grade or dismiss the school?” said a third-grade teacher to one of the older girls.

Ten-year-old Minnie stood by her teacher embarrassed and silent, her hands making some mild contortions hardly noticeable to a casual observer. She was not like other children in some ways.

“This morning every time I’ve called you, you have come late or waited until I have jerked you along. Come, tell me. What’s the matter?”

Miss Jacobs had noted no marked peculiarity in the mental ability of Minnie. She had been slow in making her grade, but was not at all the poorest student in her class.

“Come, now, let me see you walk off across the floor. Can’t you walk? What is the matter with you?” Minnie starts hesitatingly and walks awkwardly for a few steps. She is plainly confused at the close scrutiny of her teacher. She stares at Miss Jacobs.

“You may go now,” said the teacher; “but you must mind me next time more promptly.”

In the afternoon Minnie repeats her dilatory movements. Miss Jacobs at times forces her to a better speed and once remarked,

“I want you all to notice how lazily Minnie walks.” All eyes are fixed on her, and with the memory of this painful moment she goes home.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

In such a case, abandon all attitudes of hostility toward the child, including attempts to correct her conduct by calling her attention to her “misdemeanors.” Make no mention of them to other pupils. Stand near her oftentimes when she is obliged to start across the room; take her hand with a gentle expectancy and urge her to immediate action. Do this unobtrusively. If she delays, pay little heed to this fact.

Plan for Minnie to take active part in romping games. Induce several of her schoolmates to take her by the hand and lead her into the games. This is the best remedy available.

Ascertain if her general health is good. If not, report to the school physician, nurse or parents if possible. No radical medical measures will help this case; use methods of physical education, good hygiene, training in muscular activity, and with these secure freedom from mental discomfort.

Greet Minnie often with words of approval.

“I watched you girls from the window, Minnie, while you were out at play. How pretty it is to see so many little girls enjoying themselves!”

“How hard you have been running; you are all out of breath!”

“It was such a fine thing for you to come to me so quickly!”

“Come here and see what I have in my box!”

“Here you are; as fast as a little bird, aren’t you?”

COMMENTS

Minnie is self-conscious regarding her difference from other children. She needs stimuli to action, not repressive measures. Hostility represses her; cheerfulness and comradeship incite her to act. All fear must be eliminated. The teacher being often near her will kindle trust and friendship. Her powers of imitation are the chief resources for training in free bodily action. Focus her attention upon the activities of the others, rather than upon her own awkwardness. The influence of her playmates will be an almost irresistible suggestion to action of the form desired. The teacher may note circumstances under which she acts promptly and use the information in her management of Minnie.

General health and abundant play activity underlie the whole situation. Neither one can succeed without the other. Minnie’s condition is largely beyond her own voluntary control. She is suffering from under-development of the motor side of her constitution. Defects in the lower motor nerve centers are the prime cause of the ailment. A corresponding retardation in the development in the cerebral motor areas has taken place. The child can not image her bodily movements as normal children do. This unbalanced development in the nervous organization has been the chief cause of her low standing mentally. Approval will incite complacency, good cheer, comradeship, hope and the like; these are all strong contributions to good nerve activity.

Encouragement and gentle stimulation may often be combined.

ILLUSTRATION

Slowness

Freddie Jones came to Darrtown school from a home in which children received little attention from their parents. Naturally Freddie was somewhat undeveloped physically, slow and clumsy in all his movements.

“Good morning, Freddie,” said his teacher as he came slowly up the steps. Miss Patterson took him by the hand as soon as he was within reach and walked at a smart gait across the floor.

Freddie would have pulled away, but the teacher’s hand felt so friendly as it clasped his own and her pleasant chatter left no time for him to plan resistance.

“Now run out and play until I ring the bell.” Freddie was willing to go, but moved with a lazy deliberation. Just at that moment a group of noisy players dashed past the door and Miss Patterson clasped Freddie by the hand and fairly rushed him along, saying,

“Here we go”; and,

“We’ll soon catch up with them.”

As soon as she had landed Freddie among the romping children, she stopped and waving her hand to Freddie, gave him another cheering word.

When the bell rang Freddie was the last to form in line. She gently hastened his step and marched beside him, urging him with her hand to keep the pace.

III. FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES

1. Disobedience as a Result of Parents Defaming a Teacher

Often parents are to blame for an attitude of antagonism which their children take against the teacher. A case often found in the fifth or sixth grade is presented.

CASE 7

Sneering

Miss Sheldon, a brilliant young teacher, had, in her school days, a rival for school honors in the person of Mary Linton. When Miss Sheldon began her school in District No. 20, Mary Linton’s brother’s children were her pupils. The rivalry between the girls was dwelt upon and Miss Sheldon’s scholarship was adversely criticized by the Lintons. As a result Frank Linton, a bright boy aged eleven, began school with the idea of finding fault with Miss Sheldon as to scholarly ability. His constant reference to the dictionary when she used a word new to him, his forever asking her to prove her statements, etc., irritated her. The feeling of antagonism grew between them, until finally Frank often spoke to her with a sneer. She commanded him to speak respectfully to her. He disobeyed.

One recess Miss Sheldon said to a grown girl in the school,

“Cut me some switches from the willows out there and leave them on the front porch by the door. I am going to whip Frank Linton after recess.”

The girl, a friend of Miss Sheldon, did as commanded.

Soon after recess Frank used his customary sneering tone in answer to Miss Sheldon. She went to his seat near the back of the room, jerked him to his feet, and started with him to the door. The hate in his face was so marked as almost to distort his features. He clung with hands and feet to every desk he passed, while she, with great effort, loosened his hold upon one seat after another and steadily but slowly dragged him to the door. When there, she literally used up the switches on him. He cried from vexation rather than from pain, and was sullen for the remainder of the day.

No marked change in Frank’s behavior followed this punishment. The feud between Frank and Miss Sheldon lasted until school closed. The bright, happy boy was in her presence a sullen little rebel.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Do not visit upon a child the misdemeanor of his elders. If you have reason to believe that a child’s parents talk against you, visit them with a determination to show them that you have their child’s best welfare at heart. Show them that you understand him by pointing out wherein he excels, and where you hope to strengthen him. Be sure that they see your attitude of genuine friendliness.

Never attempt by force to make a child show friendliness to you.

COMMENTS

The trouble originated with the attitude of the parents toward Miss Sheldon, therefore the first step in correction is to make the parents her friends. It is really teaching a child to act a lie if you compel him by force to treat you with kindness when he does not regard you as a friend. Your business is to establish the proper relation between yourself and your pupil. Forcing a semblance of right will never create the reality.

ILLUSTRATION

Backwardness

Let us take an illustration from a case just as it actually happened. Will Taylor was sixteen years old. He was physically perfect, yet scarcely able to do work in the fourth grade although actually in the sixth. His father enjoyed outbreaking trouble. The home was just then in turmoil over the disgrace of the eldest daughter. Mr. Taylor’s love for getting even with fate somewhere would be satisfied if he could force a combat between Will and his teacher, Mrs. Brown. Mrs. Brown’s control of her school was excellent. Her friendship for the children was genuine. Some of them told her that Will’s father had “put him up” to disobey her and see what would happen.

Will was so much under his father’s influence that he openly and purposely disobeyed Mrs. Brown. He forced an issue. She punished him and he hurried home from school and told his father, whereupon his father rode furiously to the schoolhouse in order to arrive before Mrs. Brown left after school. He keyed up his anger on the road by uttering curses as he went. During the two following days Taylor’s threats were so serious that the board of education met with Mrs. Brown to discuss matters. Taylor had demanded her resignation or threatened to make life miserable for her.

She decided finally to go to his house and make him see the truth. When she announced her decision the members of the board said they almost feared to have her encounter such a man. But she went to his house. He was not at home, he was on his way home from the county seat where he had been talking against Mrs. Brown to the county superintendent.

On the arrival of Mrs. Brown at the house, Mrs. Taylor met her with tears over the disgrace of her daughter.

Mrs. Brown forgot her own trouble in her sympathy with the mother. Her words were so helpful to Mrs. Taylor that she asked Mrs. Brown to repeat them to the daughter. This, Mrs. Brown was doing when Taylor returned and, unseen by Mrs. Brown, entered the room where she was trying to point out a hopeful course for the daughter.

A real insight into Mrs. Brown’s character was thus given to Taylor. He came forward and apologized to Mrs. Brown for his behavior, dictated a letter to the county superintendent telling him that all was peaceably settled and that Taylor was ready to support Mrs. Brown. He further said that Will should go to school and be obedient. Thereafter the Taylors were staunch friends of Mrs. Brown. This good woman treasures the incident in her memory with great satisfaction, and often relates it in public with good effect.

“In brief, the truth is that savageness begets savageness, and gentleness begets gentleness. Children who are unsympathetically treated become relatively unsympathetic; whereas treating them with due fellow-feeling is a means of cultivating their fellow-feeling.”

—Spencer.

2. Disobedience Due to Imitation of Others

Annoying Acts

In every community there are leading families. The reason why they are such is usually very apparent. Children of these families often set an example of disobedience in school which has direful consequences.

CASE 8

Emma Gardner’s father was the leading member of the board of education of a New England school. The Gardner home was the largest and finest in the surrounding country. Mr. Gardner was a man of wealth and influence. Emma was a leader in school.

One day in winter she put chestnuts on the stove at recess time and they popped about the room after the next school session began.

“Who put those nuts on the stove?” asked Mr. Bain, the teacher, in a loud voice. “Whoever did must pick them up and stand up here.”

Emma arose defiantly from her seat and said, “I did. I won’t touch them, and if you touch me I’ll tell my father.”

Needless to say, Mr. Bain let the incident pass. Emma at the age of sixty still boasted of her independence at school during her girlhood days, because she was Squire Gardner’s daughter. She remembered further that this was only the beginning of disobedience throughout the school.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Find out, even before school begins, if possible, who the leading families are in the district. Study especially the children from such a family and find what they excel in, or what they best like to do. Find a means of organizing their followers into a sort of club. See that these dominating personalities are elected as leaders. Dealing with the most influential pupil, cause her to see what good she can accomplish by contributing her time and efforts toward being a real leader in sewing, drawing, music, composition, etc. If sewing is the particular art in which she excels give space in the schoolroom for an exhibition of work of that kind, ask the mothers on some Friday afternoon to inspect the articles made. If drawing is the special subject, give a similar exhibition. If music, let her prepare a musical program. If composition, a contest can be arranged for best essays, poems, etc., or a school paper edited and read.

COMMENTS

In cases like the foregoing the use of the principle of substitution is almost a necessity. Emma wants distinction and leadership. Satisfy her desire by letting her lead in some really beneficial work. She will enjoy it and have no time for showing leadership in wrongdoing. By turning her activities into right channels, not only her own tendency toward disobedience is repressed, but her leadership saves others from misbehavior. “The dictum, ‘Keep pupils busy,’ finds a much more practical and dignified expression in what may be termed the ‘doctrine of substitution.’ This doctrine would prevent the expression of undesirable impulses by substituting some other form of activity rather than by requiring an absolute inhibition of all movement.”[2]

2.  Bagley, Classroom Management, p. 103. Macmillan.

ILLUSTRATION

Minister’s Son

When Miss Travis was elected to teach the sixth grade at Concord, she was told that it was a room in which it was hard to keep order. She sought the former teacher of the room before the opening day, and was told that John Loomis, the preacher’s son, was the leader in matters of disorder among the boys. Miss Travis next called on Rev. Mr. Loomis and learned that John had taken great interest in a museum which he had visited that summer. Very early in the year she consulted John as to the practicability of establishing a tiny museum in the sixth grade room. A museum club was organized consisting of any one who brought a specimen for the exhibit. John, of course, was elected president of the club. A small cabinet was secured and its shelves began slowly to fill. The leader was influencing his associates to follow him in doing a valuable service.

3. Disobedience Due to Commanding at an Inopportune Time

There are times when the atmosphere of the schoolroom makes routine almost impossible. The nearness of a long-looked-for event in which all are interested very often is the occasion for a feeling of unrest to pervade the room.

CASE 9

Laughing

It was the thirtieth of October. Ralph Davis brought a mask to school and slipped it into his desk. During school he put down his head, put on the ugly mask, and, peering ’round behind him, frightened John Lane into a decided jump.

Mary Jones saw the whole performance. She was a nervous child and burst out laughing. Miss Wallace, her teacher, said sternly,

“What are you laughing about, Mary?”

Mary was usually an obedient girl, but now she felt as if her explanation would compromise her friends, so she made no reply. The teacher repeated,

“Mary, what are you laughing at?” Again no response. Said Miss Wallace,

“Mary, are you going to tell me what you are laughing at?” Mary sat perfectly quiet for a moment, and then decidedly shook her head. Miss Wallace said, “Come and stand here.”

For the rest of that session Mary stood by the teacher’s desk. After school closed Mary was informed that she could not go home until she told what she was laughing at. After about ten minutes of endurance she told Miss Wallace why she laughed and was excused. Mary knew injustice had been done her, but her teacher apparently thought nothing about it.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

When a pupil laughs aloud, find out for yourself the cause without trying to get a confession from the pupil. Use your eyes and ears and you can discover the difficulty if there are repeated offences. When the culprit is found, deal with him by using the method of substitution. In other words, give him and his classmates some interesting task connected with his lessons.

COMMENTS

It is often unfair to punish the pupil who laughs in school. People seldom laugh aloud at their own mistakes. Nine times out of ten one child must condemn another if he tells what he laughed at. A child’s code of ethics often demands that he keep silent when his confession involves another. If his loyalty to his comrades leads him to disobedience, often the teacher forgets to deal with the real culprit, having her attention now directed toward the disobedience of the one who unwillingly brought the disturbance to notice.

ILLUSTRATION 1

Excitement

It was the day before the Christmas vacation. Poorly concealed excitement was apparent in the actions of the children. Hazel Dare laughed aloud. Miss Dean soon noted the cause of the outbreak of merriment. Johnny Thomas had drawn a grotesque figure of Santa Claus overloaded with bundles marked “for Johnny, the brave.” Miss Dean saw that routine work could be pursued only with difficulty. She presently asked to have all desks put in order. Unusual exercises in reading, arithmetic and geography were introduced. At an early hour the children were dismissed. The unusual excitement was met by an unusual program.

A fruitful cause for the giving of inopportune commands is an inherent lack of sympathy with children, or perhaps a total lack of sense of humor. Laughter in school, when spontaneous and genuine, is not a misdemeanor, but a sign that normal, healthy conditions reign there.

ILLUSTRATION 2

Fun

One snowy afternoon in January, when the fifth grade of the Lincoln School was busy to a man preparing the spelling lesson with which the day closed, the energetic silence was broken suddenly by a little gurgling giggle. It rippled through the room with almost electric intensity, and every boy and girl looked up, on the qui vive for the joke.

Miss Key, who had been correcting papers at her desk, looked up, too, an expectant smile upon her lips.

“Something funny, Bernice?” she said to the giggler, affectionate tolerance in her voice.

“Yes’m,” answered Bernice. “Bert has a picture in his tablet of a big pile of round things, and it says something funny underneath. He showed it to me.”

“Bert shouldn’t have shown it to you when you were studying your spelling lesson, should he?” suggested Miss Key.

“No’m, I know he oughtn’t to.”

“But since Bert showed it to you, I think he should show it to the rest of us too, so we can all enjoy it together. What is it, Bert?”

Bert flushed, and rather shamefacedly held up his tablet. Under the “big pile of round things” was this legend:

KIND REDER, THIS IS NOT A PILE OF ORNAGES. IT IS MY SPELING GRADES FOR LAST MONTH.

As Bert was the poorest speller in the room, this exhibit caused a general laugh. He had often been known to miss every word in the lesson.

Miss Key laughed with the rest, heartily; but when she raised her hand after a moment, everyone stopped as though automatically shut off, and settled down again to study as Miss Key said,

“You’ll try not to add another zero to your list tonight, won’t you, Bert?”

Miss Key enjoyed fun, and was so close to her pupils that she appreciated their kind of humor. It was understood in her room that if an incident was funny enough to be laughed at, it should be shared by all who might enjoy it.

The absence of an artificial condemnation of fun made Bernice and Bert perfectly frank in explaining the cause of their mirth, which prevented any misunderstanding with the teacher. The sunny atmosphere of trust and humorous appreciation of situations made it possible for Miss Key to secure strict observance of the signal to stop laughing and go to work.

IV. SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES

1. Disobedience Due to Overemphasis of Rules

Every good school must proceed through an orderly series of typical events. A school is not a mob wandering over square feet of ground, meandering through wearisome ways. It is an organized mass of busy workers taking one task after another and doing it in the best manner its overseer can devise. Nevertheless some eager teachers stress order and strain at system until both break. Here is the place of weakness and blame when this occurs: these teachers talk too much about how the children ought to act, instead of focusing attention upon the effect of the act upon the school as a whole and upon the best way to coöperate in preventing undesirable effects, expressing their ideas of good behavior in rules. We have a sample of running a school by rules, where seventh and eighth grade pupils are involved.

CASE 10

Order

“Now, children, I saw yesterday how muddy your feet were when you stepped on to the walk from the playground; and then you marched instantly into your schoolroom and muddied the floor all over.

“Remember, no more muddy feet in this school building this winter. Make it a rule to scrape off the mud carefully before you come in. Be careful now about the mud.”

There is a lapse of some minutes and this guide of youths again breaks out:

“Jane, did you take your books home last night and work an hour on your lessons? You know our rule about that. Why didn’t you do it?” No answer and no defined idea of what her future conduct will be.

Just before intermission is announced Miss Petit again speaks out:

“Hereafter I want every boy and girl in this room to make a search for scraps of paper. Our room looks so untidy unless we clean it up a bit. Don’t forget, I want, every noon and night, each one of you to obey me and pick up your scraps.”

Later: “Say there, Walter, you haven’t set your desk in order before going home. Don’t you know what good schoolroom manners call for? Why don’t you have good manners, such as your folks want you to have at home?”

This was an unusually hard day. The last was a climax of irritations that provoked Walter beyond the strength of his patience. “Miss Petit, I don’t want to keep my desk in order; I’m tired of doing everything just so.”

Miss Petit stared in pedagogical horror; this from Walter!

“Why, what do you mean, Walter? Aren’t you coming to school any more?”

“Yes, I s’pose I’ll come, but I can’t think of all these little things, and I don’t care if I do forget ’em.”

This was a strange situation. Walter was not a boy who would provoke trouble; surely something must be done to put this young man on the track again.

Miss Petit knew something about keeping order. It had not been so long since she had heard her teacher use some such words as these:

“Now, children, remember this is a new term. I want you to watch your lessons. I’m going to have good lessons. There’s a lot of good hickory sprouts growing nearby here and we’ll be cutting some of them if lessons don’t come in right. I won’t hold back. You know the rules. I’ll break a hickory for every rule you break and you’ll feel it breaking, now, you may be sure.”

Miss Petit did not intend to make any such announcements. But nevertheless she had been taught under the whipping system and the effects were stored up among her ideas of how to conduct a school. In reality she whipped very little; instead she lashed with her tongue. She held up the rules and browbeat her pupils into obeying them. Here was the result in Walter’s new conduct.

She sat down with Walter (he was good enough to wait according to her command) and delivered a long harangue on the necessity for good order in the school.

Every word was an insult to him and he knew it. He listened in silence, with an occasional smile of irony and made some general promise, secretly determined to try out these rules and see what was to happen if “the old granny” couldn’t have her way about the forty-odd things that she wanted to manage in the seventh grade room.

Thus matters stood. They did not improve until a new dawn broke in the mind of Miss Petit.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Convert the statements about doing school duties in good fashion into a form of coöperation between pupils and teacher. Drop out the first personal pronoun and put the entire school behind the plans for a clean schoolroom floor, about home study and all the other hundred things that need to be done.

Taking up the matter of the disposal of wraps:

“All we want is to make ourselves as little trouble as possible. Do you all understand? We are all going to hang our wraps up in the cloak-room as we march into this room instead of coming in just before the bell rings to form line. We’ll do this tomorrow and see if it suits our convenience. Then we’ll decide on the future after that.”

Here the teacher drops the matter, leaving with the pupils before her a conviction that the best thing for all concerned is to be done. She speaks with a pleasant, confident voice, a faint smile creeping over her face and her hands resting in a position of readiness for action of whatever sort might be required.

In respect to the muddy feet—step to the children as they are coming into the school building and show each one the scraper and see that the proper precautions are taken. Have an object lesson first before delivering a lecture and laying down rules, as neither one may be needed.

And in the matter of picking up scraps:

“I see some paper on the floor. Of course we want to leave the room neat, so let us allow a moment just before dismissal for picking up anything that may have fallen on the floor, in spite of our care. And what will be the quickest way of getting our scraps into the waste-basket?”

“Let each person at the back of the row gather them up and carry them to the basket,” suggests one boy.

“I think it would be better to let one of us carry the basket around to all the desks,” says another.

“Suppose we try John’s method for three days, and then Marion’s for three days, and see which is the quicker and works the smoother,” says the teacher.

So the pupils experiment with methods, and finally agree upon a mode of procedure.

In general, secure the coöperation of the pupils by leading them to do what they themselves deem to be the best thing for the sake of pleasant surroundings and of delightful work.

Build up their imperfect good taste rather than attempt to forcibly direct their choices of standards of behavior.

Walter’s case needs no radical attention. The less said to him about resolving to disobey the rules the better. He doubtless has enough sound sense to see along with the rest that many people working together must adopt certain ways of getting on. Take his superficial answers, if he gives any, at full face value unless a genuine case of positive rebellion arises. If a tactful request had been made respecting the cleaning up of the desk, Walter would not have shown any resentment.

Give Walter an opportunity to act with independence. Assign him some task of leadership among the pupils, along with others who also are needed to make school work go well. Commend him for such coöperation. He is spoiling for aggressive action; he chafes under domination—load him heavily with something to do for the teacher, for his room, or for the whole school.

COMMENTS

Pupils watch keenly to see if a teacher is over-conscious of his authority. Possession of power easily leads a teacher to over-emphasize rules. Faultfinding is the chief error into which this teacher has fallen. A wise caution says things are not so bad as they seem, and waits for the worst evils to appear before adopting radical measures. Eagerness to reform generally hits upon the most obvious faults, not upon the most serious ones. These facts together may overwhelm a thoughtless teacher with disastrous blunders.

Prison rules kill men. School rules crush childhood if their importance be too greatly magnified.

Pupils expect to follow a teacher’s example. “Children do not like to do wrong better than to do right. They like to do the things they themselves plan to do. They like to do the things that are interesting to themselves.” If the teacher without public demonstrativeness first of all acts in the manner she recommends, a strong suggestion is lodged in the pupil’s mind. The most suitable bridge between the teacher’s ideal of action for her school and the mind of those pupils is not a rule, but coöperative action. Let her work with the pupils and induce them by example to try gentle tones and kind words, while doing that which interests them.

A foolish teacher attempts to cure every moody pupil by applying drastic remedies to the specific attitude of mind which seems to her to be undesirable. The wise teacher nurtures the good impulses and finds to her delight that most of the evil ones ultimately drop out.

ILLUSTRATION

“On Trust”

Prisons are not much like schools. Nevertheless the great principles of personal leadership appear in prison administration. Note in the following incident how willing the response is to an opportunity for independent, yet supervised action. Trustfulness (a typical form of coöperation) begets confidence and self-control in using new opportunities.

Thomas Mott Osborne records the following conversation with a prisoner. It reveals in another level of society how trust begets fidelity. Jack, a prisoner, speaks:

“I know this place through and through. I know these men; I’ve studied them for years. And I tell you that the big majority of these fellows in here will be square with you, if you give ’em a chance. The trouble is we ain’t treated on the level. I could tell you all sorts of frame-ups they give us. Now if you trust a man, he’ll try and do what’s right; sure he will. That is, most men will. Of course, there are a few that won’t. There are some dirty curs—degenerates—that will make trouble, but there ain’t so very many of those.”

“Look at that road work,” he continues. “Haven’t the men done fine?” “How many prisoners have you out on the roads? About one hundred and thirty. And you ain’t had a single runaway yet. And if there should be any runaways, you can just bet we’d show ’em what we think about it.”

“Do you really believe, Jack, that the superintendent and the warden could trust you fellows out in the yard on Sunday afternoons in summer?”

“Sure they could,” responds Jack, his face beginning to flush with pleasure at the thought.[3]

2. The Teacher Expects Disobedience

When we consider that some teachers expect children in general to be untrustworthy, the marvel is that they ever find them otherwise.

CASE 11

Theft

It was the closing day of the school year in a Chicago ward school. The manual training department was left open in order that those who had not taken home their last piece of handiwork might get it as they left the schoolhouse that day. Mr. Ireland, the director in this department, had an errand on the floor above, so he called to two boys, Julius and Henry, and said, “Boys, stay here till I come back, will you? Don’t let anyone take anything out of the room while I’m gone.” “All right,” they replied.

3.  Osborne, Society and Prisons, p. 155. Yale Press.

Half an hour later Charles went to the room to get his finished bird-house, and behold, it was gone! Julius and Henry joined Charles and Mr. Ireland in the search. The bird-house was simply not in the room. Mr. Ireland pointed out the exact spot where he left it. Julius and Henry confessed to having seen it there, but said they knew nothing about how it got away.

Mr. Ireland offered to make Charles a new bird-house, but Charles would not accept the offer. Mr. Ireland gave his ’phone number to Julius and Henry, telling them if they heard of the bird-house to let him know. He also promised to let Charles know if anything was heard of it, and thus dismissed the matter. Charles felt keenly that Mr. Ireland had taken the whole matter too lightly. Nothing whatever was said about the disobedience of Julius and Henry after promising to guard the room.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Responsibility

Stiffen up your demands requiring fidelity in pupils. Give strict, perhaps stern injunctions about guarding the treasures given into their charge.

Say to Julius and Henry: “Charles has suffered a real loss and I know you fellows are as sorry about it as I am. It’s just this way: suppose you or I left a suit-case at the station and got a check for it, wouldn’t we expect to get our suit-case back again? I really think I am a good deal to blame for this myself. When you both said, ‘All right,’ I might have made it a little plainer that I wanted you to keep a sharp eye on this property.

“I tell you what you do; you get the bird-house for me. See if you can get it to me by five o’clock this afternoon.”

When selecting custodians of property be sure that at least one of each group is a pupil in which you have the utmost confidence. Nevertheless assign duty of this sort to pupils who are not so dependable, linking them up with trustworthy schoolmates; duty of this type should not be confined to a favored few.

If a breach of confidence occurs, follow up the matter unrelentingly. The words employed to secure the desired information may be well tempered; but the certainty of rigid inquiry should not be suspended for a moment.

Teacher and administrator are to maintain an atmosphere of unreserved insistence that the common virtues be rigorously maintained by the pupils and that fidelity when these virtues are involved in discharging a duty must be preserved at all hazards.

The attitude of expectancy is one of the greatest safeguards against criminal negligence.

COMMENTS

The majority of children too seldom meet with an unwavering demand that a certain task be attended to in a given manner and at a specified time.

Lessons on such matters need not be frequent nor burdensome; but they should not be lacking for every child in school.

General carelessness found in the ordinary experiences in dealing with children, too readily leads a teacher to become lax in his demands upon pupils. Infinite patience is needed in training those who have not learned persistent devotion to a duty.

ILLUSTRATION

Detectives

After Mr. Ireland had seemingly dismissed the subject of the stolen bird-house from his mind, Charles reported his loss to the principal, Mr. DeShane.

Mr. DeShane called Henry and Julius to him at once and said,

“You boys either know where that bird-house is or can find out inside of an hour. Your honor demands that you get it. You are the detectives. Deliver the house at Charles’ home before an hour goes by.”

The thief was found and the bird-house given to the owner, largely because Mr. DeShane expected it.

3. Disobedience Due to Unregulated Independence in the Child

Children of the adolescent age often feel the impulse to avoid supervision, and yet are not reasonable in their independence.

CASE 12

Irresponsibility

When Goldie Johnson reached the eighth grade her mother often remarked to a neighbor,

“Goldie is in the graduating class now. She doesn’t have to take care of little Joseph all the time. She is getting too big to be kept at dish-washing and dusting, too.”

Goldie’s reaction to this treatment by her mother was carried into the school where her independence and antipathy to authority were shown in her determination to escape hard work. Accordingly, she repeatedly failed to hand in the required home work in arithmetic.

The teacher, Miss Cook, undertook to command her to do her work. She failed to comply. Disobedience and carelessness were shown in other lines of work. Goldie failed to complete the eighth grade work. She refused to go to school the following year. The result was that her education ended here. She would have gone to high school had she not been allowed to fail in the eighth grade.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Find out if possible the exact cause of Goldie’s failure to present work the first time she brings none. Study her attitude when she disobeys other commands. On some occasion outside of school hours meet Goldie and explain why she should comply with school requirements, using some such points as these:

“Goldie, the school is conducted for the pupils’ sake. After many efforts to discover methods that will help pupils to learn as fast as possible, we have adopted these now in use. Your father and mother require us to use our best judgment; they trust to your good sense to see that we are trying to select study plans, etc., that will bring you the most good.

“With all sincerity I want to say that if at any time you see how we could get better results by adopting some of your ideas, we shall certainly be glad to get them. Be frank and tell us. Let me have a chance to help you over difficult places before you get thoroughly discouraged. I want to do everything I can to make your work a success.”

Show her your interest in her case by arranging to stay with her after school while she does her extra work. See to it that she does the work before she leaves the schoolroom. Expect the work to be done.

COMMENTS

Teachers often underestimate the efficacy of a pointed, sincere talk with an eighth grade pupil. If all faultfinding is eliminated from this interview, defense of his conduct seems less necessary to him and he will be influenced by reason.

“A quiet, frank, heart-to-heart talk between disciplinarian and disciplined, will often prove a revelation to both. The offending boy has his point of view and has a full right to look at school matters from his angle until, through tactful, kindly management he gains a new viewpoint.”[4]

4.  Pearson, The High School Problem, p. 106. Row, Peterson & Co.

ILLUSTRATION

Written Work

A large class of eighth grade pupils had different teachers for different subjects. Near the beginning of the school year, Mr. Smith, one of the teachers, said to Mrs. Lathrop, a teacher of another subject,

“That class simply will not prepare written work for me. They deliberately disobey me about it.”

Mrs. Lathrop had seen no signs of rebellion in the class. Soon she ordered written work handed in for the next day. She made her explanation of what she wanted done very exact. The task she set was easy and required little time. She expected to have work from every pupil. She was not disappointed. After the papers were handed in she told the pupils how pleased she was to get a well-prepared paper from each one. She talked a moment about the mental and moral strength of the class, and of her hopes regarding a year’s work with them.

Needless to say, a very strong bond of good faith grew up between her and the class. They never collectively or individually failed her. She used with them the principles of expectancy and approval. Mr. Smith failed with the same class through faultfinding.

A man may well bring a horse to the water

But he cannot make him drink without he will.

—John Heywood.

V. THE HIGH SCHOOL

1. Disobedience Due to Faultfinding Resulting in Useless Punishment

CASE 13

Destructiveness

Charles and Henry are in the principal’s office. “Did you boys visit the tower last night and write your names on the hands of the clock?” The boys assent. “Did you know that that door is kept locked so as to prevent people from going up in the tower?” Again the boys say, “Yes.”

“Let’s see! You boys have been in here several times, haven’t you? You got a whipping for fighting. Again I punished you for playing ball in the neighbors yards. And after that you were punished for repeatedly abusing the apparatus in the gymnasium. At another time you two went with a basket ball team contrary to my plan. What do you think is to come of all this? Do you like the whippings?”

The boys are very quiet until the last question. Charles answers: “I don’t think we have been bad, and—”

“Well, that’s not left for you to decide. We are trying to make something of you, and all this rough treatment is brought on by your own reckless disregard for the rules and orders in force in the school. You will each bring in twenty extra problems in algebra and also pay for the repairing of the tower clock. If I catch you in the tower again you will both get a much more severe punishment. Do you understand?”

After the boys left, Mr. Elsworth remarked to one of his teachers:

“When I come to school in the morning I never feel quite sure that I shall not have to whip one or both of these boys for some foolish, thoughtless scrape. I quite dread seeing either Charles or Henry. I may have to expel Charles.”

Charles has suffered occasional floggings all through the grades. When another pupil reports to Charles the principal’s remark about expulsion, he becomes alarmed. He is doing fair work in school; and has not failed in winning promotion at the end of each year. His power over Henry is irresistible; they are constant chums. Their escapades never have provoked the severest penalties. They shared punishments because both joined in accepting equal responsibility. They rarely lied about their misdeeds and timed them so as to avoid cumulative indignation until the last incident.

Charles is bold, venturesome, knows the country roads well all about town, has some taste for animal study and easily takes the lead, but has not been cultivated in this particular. He is just approaching his fifteenth birthday.

The penalty method has failed. Only one aspect of it has had any considerable influence with the boys—the possibility of expulsion.

The principal has let the matter drag along in a heedless fashion, with no clear policy in mind.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Give the boys special attention, without disclosing it to the other pupils. Adopt a well-thought-out policy. Watch the effect of every move you make. Have a great deal more “up your sleeve” than the boys find out.

Plan at once a series of excursions into the country in connection with the science courses, not as a reward, but as a part of the school program.

Assign certain important, though not conspicuous tasks, to several members of the group, including Charles and Henry. At first keep the two boys together on a task; later separate them and give each a new team-mate.

On successive trips, as occasion suggests, ask Charles to lay out the route for the party or to secure a conveyance to bring home a sick girl or to gather information and report on habits of squirrels in the region.

Give private verbal expression to Charles of your appreciation of his work: “The trips to the country seem to depend very largely on you for their success. You are taking a leading part in the management of these affairs. We appreciate your service very much.”

On suitable occasions give Charles practice in obedience on small points. For example, all are sitting about the lunch spread on the ground in the woods. A beautiful butterfly alights in your easy reach. Extend your hand with eager expectancy and some subdued haste and say,

“Charles, hand me the net please.” The task is very slight; there is very little chance of disobedience. Repetition of such lessons should be secured as often as possible and on each occasion express your satisfaction and thanks.

If stronger reactions from the boys are needed, assign special congenial tasks for the good of the school: erection of basket ball poles, laying of tennis courts, handling of properties connected with class play. Work with them.

Avoid all reference to past misconduct. Never use school duties as penalties; it begets dislike for them.

COMMENTS

Boys become hardened to corporal or other severe punishments too often repeated. Pain seems due to fate and loses nearly all of its little corrective value. With rare exceptions penalties inflicted provoke mutual antagonism between pupil and teacher. This inhibits the development of character.

Mr. Elsworth made no headway with the punishment method. If he wisely adopts the plan to direct the activities of the boys instead of suppressing them, he can win the respect and good-will of the disobedient boys. He must avoid “testing” their loyalty as far as possible; any slight lapse is a serious backward step. Time is needed to effect a cure; years of mismanagement cannot be remedied in a few days.

If Mr. Elsworth reverses his attitude toward the boys the method will be effective; his opinion of, and known sentiments regarding, these boys have more significance than all the plans he may adopt.

If practice in obedience is given on matters pertaining to the school welfare, the boys will have a persistent social reason for doing right. The principal is to convince them that he is merely expressing plans for courses of action that the school welfare demands; he is not making a private matter of his control of the boys.

2. Disobedience Due to Commands That Infringe on Personal Rights

There are many fine distinctions on what are a pupil’s remaining personal rights after once he enters school. In many cases a teacher has a right to know what a boy has in his pockets or what a girl has placed in her lunch basket. A superintendent under some circumstances may order a boy to bring from home a knife involved in a fight. Under other circumstances such authority would not be granted either by law or by public sentiment.

CASE 14

Mr. Herron went to the school board meeting and made a request.

Dropping Things

“The boys are not under good control. I think I need authority to use corporal punishment. I would like you to grant this authority at this meeting.” The request was granted.

Mr. Herron next day made the following announcement:

“No more painting pans to be dropped, not one. I was at the school board meeting last night and my request for the right to use force to secure obedience was granted.”

He seemed two inches taller for a moment as he came to the climax of his speech. But the quality of his voice did not promise any stronger manhood than he had displayed hitherto.

He had scarcely finished his talk until a “careless” elbow knocked a pan to the floor and a long familiar rattle was again echoed over the schoolroom.

Mr. Herron knew who was the offender, but did not disclose the fact. Soon he walked nonchalantly up from a rear position toward Herbert Brown. Herbert eyed him through the corner of his eye and squared himself for trouble.

Presently Mr. Herron stepped up to Herbert and in a flash struck him a light blow on the side of the head, saying in a strong voice,

“Take that.”

Herbert threw up his hand to shield his face from attack and said, “Take what?”

“Put your hand down,” was the next command. No response, but a taunting look from Herbert.

“Put down your hand, I tell you.”

Mr. Herron had forgotten all about the dropping of the paint pan and was intent on securing obedience to another command. He failed. He allowed his attention to be diverted to another part of the room, his attitude of authority to subside, and Herbert to do whatever he found to do.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Reform Yourself First

Instead of force, a reorganizing of the teacher’s ideas is the only remedy. Forget all about coercion and compel yourself to solve the problem by some other method. Keep your desk in order. Be absolutely punctual. Carry out your personal and school program to the letter. Be fully prepared to teach each subject interestingly. Expect to reform yourself and your school on doing what is appointed to be done on time and thoroughly. Stiffen up your thinking. Gather up anecdotes of success, especially from the modern business world. Turn all the impulse to use force on the pupils into will power to build up your own character; compel yourself and the school will follow you.

The whole method of showing authority, threatening to use force, attacking the noise problem with a mere “talk,” the cuffing of Herbert on the head, the command to take down the hand, shows the folly of leaning on coercion. Some schools suffer little from successful coercion, but this teacher was a conspicuous failure. To this day his pupils despise him. But a policy of force dare not be surrendered during a conflict.

Thomas Hughes gave the following advice about fighting among boys; it may be of interest to our Mr. Herron:

When to Fight

“As for fighting, keep out of it if you can, by all means. When the time comes, if ever it should, that you have to say, ‘Yes,’ or ‘No,’ to a challenge to fight, say, ‘No,’ if you can—only take care you make it clear to yourself why you say, ‘No.’ It’s a proof of the highest courage, if done from true Christian motives. It’s quite right and justifiable, if done from simple aversion to physical pain and danger. But don’t say, ‘No,’ because you fear a licking, and say or think it’s because you fear God, for that’s neither Christian nor honest. And if you do fight, fight it out; and don’t give in while you can stand and see.”

Moreover, adopt a policy of active coöperation. Take the initiative in this matter. Find the most suitable point of contact between your own and your pupils’ individual interests and take a leading part in them. Perhaps it is athletics; if your aid becomes almost a necessity, disciplinary problems will no longer be your chief concern. If things are in a bad way begin by planning with a few boys privately. You may say,

“I’m just turning over in my mind the idea of organizing two or three baseball teams in the eighth grade and in the high school. What do you think of it?”

Take the matter up with each when he is alone or with two in a group, so as to come close to as many boys as possible. Use plenty of time to develop the idea. Spur the boys to take the lead, but maintain the position of chief advisor. Plan out much more than can probably be accomplished, so as to show intensity of interest and wealth of resources for use in behalf of the boys.

Having once commanded Herbert to take down his hand, which was a mistake, never give up until he obeys. Surrender at this point is fatal. Make up your mind that it is important for his sake and for the school’s sake. If necessary say: “Put your hand down, Herbert. You are not to be punished further for this offense.” That is, give him a reason for obeying.

If he still refuses, a courageous teacher having once chosen to use force will compel the hand to go down even though he precipitates a scuffle.

If the situation makes a scuffle impracticable, Herbert could be dealt with privately and an adequate settlement of the issue secured.

COMMENTS

If the teacher maintains the attitude recommended, he will launch a powerful suggestion which cannot fail to modify the conduct of the school. He accomplishes far more by suggestion than he does by direct instruction. The latter is subject to point-blank criticism; the former enters the mind without deliberate scrutiny by the person influenced.

It does not take so much of a teacher’s time to enter sympathetically into a pupil’s life as one might suppose. It is not a matter of hours, but of conscious linkage with pupil interests.

Who Is the Ringleader?

No one can manage a school who cannot discover ringleaders. These must be dealt with unobstrusively to avoid accusations of favoritism. Dealing with persons one at a time saves a teacher from the cumulative pressure of combined personal suggestion. If one pupil alone objects to an idea he is not reinforced by the consensus of comrades. When the teacher has won over, in part at least, a number of pupils singly, he can trust himself to face the entire group for purposes of conference and decision on a project.

Comradeship develops in forming plans, whether they are practical or imaginative. The close adjustment of mind to mind, the pooling of interests, the surrender of preferences all make coöperative planning one of the richest sources of friendship. Moreover, it is an excellent school for character building: it constrains one to adjust himself to intimate life with other people.

“Let them obey that know not how to rule.”

—Shakespeare.

3. Disobedience That Is Deliberate and Persistent

A willfully disobedient pupil is one who refuses to obey because of intense resistance to control by another will. The rebellion is deliberate and persistent. The disciplinarian needs good generalship when confronting an aggravated instance of willful disobedience.

CASE 15

Arthur was not a vicious character, but life flowed at a fast pace through his veins and at times he seemed hardly responsible for the wild excursions he made into school adventures.

The Fun-maker

He came into high school well taught in all the devices for fun-making used in all the school. He tested every teacher just as a driver snaps a new whip—to see how much rebound there is in it. He entered every opening for forbidden actions, but always stopped when compelled to submit to authority. He did not merely drift into forbidden paths by heedlessness.

A prohibition was a challenge to him. It offended him. He had a free spirit. Scenting limitations, he chafed and tried to overleap bounds set up by authority. On matters not mentioned for his admonition, he made not the least trouble. There was nothing interesting to him in undisturbed routine.

Only one instance can be given. He sat well back in the study hall and when Miss Green kept study hour, life was a torment to her.

On Tuesday morning following some warm words from Miss Green on the preceding day about better conduct, Arthur brought a mink skin to school and stuffed it into his desk before school opened. During Miss Green’s supervision of the study period, the following remarks were made:

“What’s the cause of all those grins, etc., back there?”

No answer, but a mild subsidence of noise, and some show of work. In a few moments a girl’s scream shocks every one in the room. Miss Green looks up quickly enough to see Arthur drawing in his arms from the seat in front and stuffing something down under his desk.

“Arthur, what’s that you have there?” says Miss Green. No answer is given her, and she nervously rises from her seat and marches to Arthur’s desk.

“What is that you put in your desk?”

“A mink,” says Arthur with a look of hypocritical sheepishness.

“A mink! Get that thing out this minute.”

The Mink skin

Arthur fumbles, spills his books on the floor, looks around to see if he is being properly watched by the pupils, shuffles his feet on the floor and almost slips from his seat before he succeeds in “catching” his “mink.” Then slowly he draws forth the mink skin, elbows boldly projecting, and slams it down on Miss Green’s hand as if making a hasty delivery of a longed-for treasure. She snatches her hand away in ill-concealed terror and all eyes are turned on her.

“Take that thing from here instantly to Mr. Ensley’s office.”

Then an argument begins between her and Arthur. After several violent thrusts of authority have been made, Arthur lumberingly ambles across the room, out of the door and down the hall.

A partial quiet is restored while Arthur loiters a moment outside and then enters, not having made the appointed call. He returns to his seat feigning anger. Miss Green is sorry she has provoked Arthur so much as to distract her mind while digging out thirty lines of Virgil.

Miss Green suspected what Arthur had done. Before now she had sent Arthur to the principal for disciplinary purposes, and although he had labored with Arthur, no good had come of it.

She later mentioned the incident to the principal, who promised to take it up, wishing at the same time that his Latin teacher had a strong will and a firm and effective method of discipline.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Study Hall Discipline

Too much attention has been given to details of discipline and not enough to the subject as a whole. Master the larger situation first. Too much time is spent in inspecting assembly-room conduct. Your scrutiny tends to provoke misconduct because you seem to pose as an expert in detecting and suppressing disorder. You make the impression that the study period is to be chiefly devoted to keeping good order. This distracts and unnerves pupils of many types.

Instead of order, make study the chief concern for the period. Move about the room in search of opportunities to help on difficult matters. If no help is called for, chat with one and another (without creating confusion) about important topics. Do not attempt to talk with some one all the time, but take a genuine interest in, say, four or five pupils during the period. Bring them something of value; draw their attention to strong points and anchor their interest in matters worth consideration.

In case something needs attention, do not respond to the alarm with a shocked demeanor. The echoes of an explosion may die away and then you can leisurely approach the scene and take action if any is needed. You may need to say,

“Alfred, I should like a little conference with you at noon. Perhaps you can clear up some of these matters.”

Be present at his desk if possible, or, better still, meet him privately and receive a report of the transaction.

Many teachers avoid making appointments of this sort, but seize an opportune moment for a decisive interview, after taking time to formulate a course of action.

Avoid instantaneous decisions on negative action as far as possible.

COMMENTS

Few teachers realize how much of ill conduct is due to small provocations from their own dress or manners. A woman with a towsled head, a man with a shabby suit, may so grate on the nerves of pupils as to contribute seriously to misconduct.

Every one engaged in study is more excitable than when free to move at liberty and to give healthy exercise to a large number of the muscles of the body. Irritations induce more numerous and more serious misbehavior under these circumstances.

Mannerisms of Teacher

Some teachers have a mannerism of retreating the upper or lower lip, of wringing their hands, of tripping noiselessly across the floor; such actions are novel and distracting.

Over-caution as to good order or misapplied caution irritates every one who takes note of it. One is tempted to say, “What a fool she is,” and to spy on her as she attempts detective tricks. A pupil has the opportunity of winning distinction if he can out-general such a disciplinarian, both in his own esteem and in the opinion of his schoolmates.

Pupils know what a study period is for. If the time is misspent in the mere mechanics of the thing the power is all used before any work is done. Any loose play in a method of handling a school begets distrust, whether it be in athletic finances, the care of buildings, the assignment of lessons or the management of a study period. Distrust in one area soon spreads to others and weakens the whole school machine.

A short visit with a pupil from a well loaded teacher who knows her business, who leaves a cheerful word, who senses the situation in which a pupil finds himself, has a most stimulating effect. Even when no problem is awaiting outside aid, the genuine interest of a supervising teacher adds a great deal to the enjoyment of a day in school.

Helping a Pupil

Some strong teachers have the knack of making even a somewhat noisy visit at a student’s desk without seriously distracting others from their work; the noise is that of intensity, not of uncontrolled explosiveness.

Such a visit combines in fine proportions approval and coöperation.

“You are doing good work there; let me see what you are working at.” “Yes, now let’s see how that looks; perhaps I can help you just a little.” Such suggestions as these put backbone into work that sooner or later will need invigoration.

A teacher who attempts to deal with a matter in public always runs the risk of making the matter worse. A pupil, however meek he is in private, is bold and resistant when his fellow pupils are looking on if any tendency to mischief is in him. He cares less for the teacher’s approval than for the heroic honors awaiting him from at least some of his schoolmates. By a loud voice, or casual remark, he may insult the teacher effectively and yet so mildly that the offense dare not be dealt with. This means instantaneous loss of prestige; the loss is very difficult to make up.

If one is positively sure of his ground, then immediate dealing with the case may be wise. High school pupils are less scrupulous and more resourceful than other pupils and explosions or failures on the part of the teacher carry much farther through the school because of the greater significance attached to student criticism.

ILLUSTRATION

As an illustration of the better method of managing Arthur, no finer case can be taken than that of Miss Featherstone, who taught English and shared with Miss Green supervision of the high school.

In the classroom, the pupils were working on the debate to come off the following Friday. “Arthur, let me see your outline,” said Miss Featherstone. Arthur has struggled severely over this matter, but handed in a much marked paper. “Thank you,” said Miss Featherstone with an air of satisfaction and accomplishment and curiosity as she turned over the sheets handed in. The class was in order and ready for work. At the close of the hour Miss Featherstone said, “This has been a good hour together. You have made the right beginning in your debate. I want to see each of you before next Tuesday. Arrange privately with me for a consultation date. Excused.”

Without tyranny or threat the hour had been quietly devoted to study and now that Miss F. entered the study hall, the same methods brought good order.

A Masterly Disciplinarian

Arthur had had time to forget any little pleasure there was in teasing Miss Green. He saw a strong and significant eye of Miss F.’s looking at him a moment from the desk. She stood slowly surveying the room, noting the action or evident inattention of every pupil in the room.

When William was caught gazing for a long time out of the window, Miss F.’s finger beckoned a new position, which he instantly assumed.

Arthur saw the whole thing. He did not wait to be directed how to spend his time. His hands quietly reached for an algebra and he went to work.

Every time he looked up he saw a little strong-willed woman, who let no event in the room escape her eye. Impulses to displease her with an interruption of the school work died before they were scarcely noted by the now industrious Arthur.

Miss Featherstone made no feature of her work of supervision, as such. She worked; that is all. When she sat down by Alice Hinman a moment, something happened.

“You’ll find a good illustration for that paragraph in your history in the Dictionary of Biography, vol. IV., p. 29.”

Details were at her finger tips, and every piece of advice hit a point.

Her friends say, “She’ll sit up all night to help a person in distress. She did that very thing when Maggie Henderson lost her oration in the fire before she had it memorized. She was to leave for a week’s vacation. She spent the whole night preceding her departure helping Maggie reconstruct the lost oration.”

4. Pupils Agree to Disobey

Mass action presents problems different from those arising from individual misconduct. Not only are the numbers to be dealt with larger, but each member of the rebellious group is to a large degree different in his attitude because of the effect of a mass influence.

CASE 16

In Welton, the superintendent of schools, J. Q. Jefferson, followed the example of his predecessors and made elaborate arrangements for a team of contestants to go up to Enfield in May to try for the district honors in oratory, music and debate.

A few days before the 10th of May, the day set for the contest, a conflict of which only the fewest rumors had been heard came to a head. Mr. Jefferson was interviewed at a noon intermission by Harold Waterman:

Students Strike

“Mr. Jefferson, the members of the Delphian society have decided not to participate in this contest. We have found that the Archimedeans have concocted a plan by which all the best students of next year’s entering class will be yoked up to join their society and we cannot agree to it.”

“But this has no immediate connection with the contest. Why not go on with the contest and settle this matter on the outside?”

“I know; that plan has been discussed and some were willing to proceed, but last night our society held a special meeting; the contestants agreed to stand by the society and when the vote was taken the majority decided not to go on with the contest.”

This was a fatal state of affairs, for as usual the Delphians were furnishing two-thirds of the fifteen contestants.

The Delphians had broken no rules in their stand, since the contest matter was a voluntary affair. But the Archimedeans were in the wrong. Two years before an agreement had been made that no schemes for society membership rushes were to be permitted until the last week of September in each year. For two years this plan held, but now it failed.

Mr. Jefferson at once conferred with the Archimedeans. A part of the interview ran as follows: “Mr. Jefferson, the Delphians have managed to get in all the strong fellows in school. The plan has nearly ruined our society. We are simply doing what we have to do. No, the society will not change on this matter,” said the president, Kathleen Morris. A short meeting of the Archimedeans was called at the superintendent’s request. It resulted in no change of policy. Next Mr. Jefferson announced that the Archimedeans would be forbidden to give any more programs or to hold any meetings in the school building until they formally rescinded their action and changed their stand.

The Delphians stood by their declaration and remained out of the contest. The Archimedean contestants could only enter in oratory as the debate team was weakened by the Delphian strike.

Much bitter feeling grew in a few weeks’ time. The matter stood in this fashion until the end of the year. Mr. Jefferson was not reëlected at the end of his first year.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Controlling Strikers

Find out what all classes and societies are planning and doing in such large matters as membership campaigns. Have a trusted student officer in each society to confer with you as soon as serious problems arise. Attend society meetings often enough to be counted an interested adviser; or better still, have each society under the care of a teacher who is expected to attend all meetings and coöperate with the officers in keeping the society in a high state of efficiency. Assist in planning affairs that are not officially under your direct control.

Be sure to avoid excessive encouragement of any one competing organization in school. Competition is good in case the competitors are nearly evenly matched. Help the under dog, in a wise manner. When a society seems on the decline initiate some plan to revive its strength. Coöperation at the right moment will win confidence and prevent clashes.

Make an appeal to the Delphian Society on the ground of their past record. Display the details of their achievements, repeat the announcements of the coming contest. Secure the assistance of some graduate Delphians who are unconcerned in the present grievance. Apply the method of approval on a large scale and show the society that its members, the school and the town are hanging with expectancy on their decision to continue preparation and again win the trophies. This should be done privately to a large extent to avoid over-emphasizing the importance of this one society.

Promise fair dealing with the Archimedeans, but make no pledges about solving the problem instantly and in the way demanded by the Delphians.

Take plenty of time to correct an evil, if no urgency of growing habit compels haste. Propose the substitution of a better method for increasing membership in the Archimedean society. Perhaps new members will be chosen by lot as fast as new pupils enroll. Issue no prohibitions if they can be avoided.

Avoid calling a meeting of rebellious students unless you have a plan that is acceptable to the leaders of the group. If negative action is necessary deal with single students.

Man is a creature of a willful head

And hardly driven,—but is easily led.

—S. Daniel.

COMMENTS

Getting the News

Some executives have a fine ear for school news; they catch what is passing, seemingly with little effort. They are not eavesdroppers or spies, they do not employ informers, and yet they know everything that goes on.

There is a good reason for their success; they are sought-out counsellors. Their pupils have a sense of being team-mates with the superintendent or principal and so are frequently in his company.

The scope of official jurisdiction is by no means sufficiently wide to cover all the useful points of comradeship in school management. There need to be occasions of voluntary assistance that extend beyond the range of ordinary school routine. This coöperation is unofficial and very powerful in dissipating mild antipathies between teacher and pupil.

5. Disobedience Provoked by a Policy Contravening Community Sentiment

The eager, self-confident, strong-willed teacher often rushes into a program of action that has unfortunate results. If in his own student days he attended a large, highly organized school where the authorities easily executed new school policies, he often blunders as a teacher when beginning work in a smaller school because of unskilled imitation of the methods of his former teachers.

Know the Community

Perry warns the teacher against neglecting to study the psychology of the crowd. A pupil dealt with alone is but one individual. If another shares in the conference you have a group. Any punishment shared with another loses force. If another two are added to the number the punishment ceases to have real worth. This does not mean that there is no such thing as the punishment of a social group; but that what is a punishment for one does not become a punishment for a crowd simply by being extended to the crowd. The punishment of individuals and of groups is essentially different, and must be differently planned.

CASE 17

Dancing

Miss Allison took charge of the Reynolds High School as principal under a mediocre superintendent. After the term was well under way she made this announcement one morning at general exercises, “Owing to the fact that the work of the high school has been suffering seriously for some weeks past by reason of an excessive number of social affairs, it has been decided to ask you all to refrain from social dancing during the remainder of the year.”

After a few more words in which Miss Allison disclosed the fact that the announcement had the approval of the board of education and the superintendent, the matter was dropped.

Not many days passed until the following conversation took place:

“Edith, didn’t you plainly understand the announcement made in the assembly-room some time ago?”

“Yes, Miss Allison, I understood. But you know we have all been accustomed to dancing for years and years back and it seems hard to have our fun all taken away from us.”

“But you are asked to give up dancing only during the school term.”

Edith continues, “All the other young folks not in school go on with their fun; they invite us and we want to dance.”

“Well,” said Miss Allison, “all I can say is that the high school pupils are not to dance while attending this school. You have not followed the rule of the school. This is your first dance and if you do not repeat it we can let the matter rest.”

But things took a turn for the worse. Community sentiment was not strong enough to sustain Miss Allison, although official consent had been readily obtained.

At a senior class social the whole company fell back into the old ways and dancing lasted until midnight. When Miss Allison learned of it she reported the matter to her superintendent. He sympathized with her and then left the difficulty largely in her own hands.

She decided finally to drop any further consideration of the question of dancing. She heard occasional remarks of mingled curiosity and scorn and found her influence on the school sadly weakened.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

A Substitute for Prohibition

Instead of the plan that Miss Allison followed we suggest the following procedure. Remain silent on the matter of dancing as a cause of insufficient lesson preparation. Your private opinion on the propriety of dancing can of course be modestly disclosed.

To secure better results in class work consider again the length of lesson assignments, interesting matter for recitations, and whatever accessory means are needed to make class work of great interest. Review again details of modern plans of teaching high school subjects. Accept as a probable fact that laxity in preparation for a recitation is chiefly the fault of the teachers in that subject. Confer with each teacher privately on this problem of better teaching methods.

The following seems a tactful method of approach.

“Mr. Pingree, just a moment, please. I ran across some announcements lately that I think might interest you. They deal with the use of reproductions of famous paintings for use in high school Latin courses. After you look them over I should like to confer with you and perhaps plan to introduce them into our work here.”

Attend pupil social affairs sufficiently to gain the reputation of genuine interest in high school social events. Secure a firm hold by this means on the affections of the pupils and ascertain by direct observation the actual distraction traceable to social diversions.

If necessary plan a few little social affairs for some of the leaders of high school sentiment. In these demonstrate some novelties in the way of entertainment plans. Choose schemes that are not so elaborate or exhausting as those in use by the high school pupils and so introduce substitutes for them.

Ascertain if you can lay hands on one or two trusted pupil-leaders and persuade them to agitate quietly and unofficially for a moderation in evening or other distracting social affairs. Take no chance at this point; if in doubt omit the attempt.

COMMENTS

A teacher often over-estimates the connection of certain supposed causes with the known conduct of pupils. There are always several reasons why a pupil acts as he does; if reform can be secured by dealing with a manageable cause it is better by far than to attack the most difficult one.

These acts of disobedience were clearly provoked by a mistaken policy instituted by the principal. The method suggested eliminates this provocation and leads to coöperation instead of antagonism.

Pupils rebel naturally against being rounded up for lessons either mediocre or positively distasteful. Nearly all pupils respond appreciably to a first-class attempt to teach a subject. Substitute excellence in class work for coercion in social affairs and you appeal to the common sense of every one concerned. Poor teaching leaves the pupil unsatisfied and disposed to fill up his life with that which pleases him most.

Direction Not Suppression

Suppression of social interest is impossible. Education of high school pupils in social intercourse and recreation is a necessary part of school training. A teacher may easily be as lax in caring for this phase of his duty as a pupil is in preparing his lessons.

The art of holding an interview with a pupil is not easily learned. Let us see how a boy describes a conversation with a strong, fine man who knows how to make men out of boys.

“Well, I just told him all about it. You can’t think how kind and gentle he was, the great grim man, whom I’ve feared more than anybody on earth. When I stuck he lifted me, just as if I had been a little child. And he seemed to know all I’d felt, and to have gone through it all. And I burst out crying more than I’ve done this five years; and he sat down by me, and stroked my head; and I went blundering on and told him all; much worse things than I’ve told you. And he wasn’t shocked a bit, and didn’t snub me or tell me I was a fool and it was all nothing but pride and wickedness, though I dare say it was. And he didn’t tell me not to follow out my thoughts, and he didn’t give me any cut-and-dried explanation. But when I’d done he just talked a bit—I can hardly remember what he said; but it seemed it spread round me like healing and strength, and light; and to bear me up, and plant me on a rock, where I could hold my footing and fight for myself.”[5]

5.  Hughes, Tom Brown’s Schooldays. Macmillan.

Again, it is clear that if disobedience grows out of the certainty on the part of pupils that the community will support them rather than the teacher, the logical thing for a teacher to do is to deal with that community sentiment, in its adult and influential exponents, rather than in the children whose attitudes are formed by it.

ILLUSTRATION

Gambling

Thomas Mallory was principal of a high school in a suburban town where practically all the citizens were well-to-do people. In November of his first year, he noticed that at noons the students who in fine weather walked or played tennis after eating luncheon, on stormy days were playing cards. This in itself was not serious, but a little observation showed him that gambling in a small way was being carried on. He did not pretend to be greatly shocked by these discoveries, for he knew that most of the students had taken a hand in card games in their own homes without restraint, and that many of them knew that their fathers played for small sums at their clubs and that their mothers won valuable prizes at bridge parties. To most of them, the staking of their pin money but lent a pleasurable zest to a game of cards.

But Mr. Mallory had a horror of gambling. After much thought upon the matter, and several interviews with boys and girls who liked to make bets, he decided to submit the problem to the parents themselves. He sent out with the November report of each pupil a mimeographed and signed note to the parent or guardian, explaining the situation and saying that he thought that, owing to the abuses that young people were liable to make of the privilege of playing cards, they would better not be allowed to play at all, especially as it was impracticable for teachers to oversee personally the conduct of each group during the noon recess, even if such espionage were wise. He called attention to the importance of the formation of right habits during adolescence, and asked each parent if a prohibition of card-playing in the high school would not meet with his approval.

The response was everything that could have been wished. Even those parents who were themselves gamblers in one way or another, did not want their children to gamble even in a small way at school. Having, then, the practically undivided support of his patronage (a few parents were not sufficiently interested to reply, but none opposed his measure) Mr. Mallory made a rule that no card-playing was to take place upon the school premises, and without any trouble more wholesome recreations took its place.

6. Disobedience Growing Out of Unbridled Pleasure Seeking

There come times when the usual routine of school life is suspended and the pent up enthusiasm or passion for play seems to run wild.

High school pupils find it particularly difficult to keep within the established limits on such occasions.

CASE 18

A Big Celebration

Five other boys went with the six debaters of the Roylston High School, when they went to Barrymore, twenty miles away, for their annual debate. The principal, Mr. Knapp, always had gone with them on these trips; but this time he was detained by illness in his family, which developed too late for him to find a substitute. He therefore gave them last instructions at the station and hurried home, the boys’ assurances that they would “do him proud” ringing in his ears.

At twelve o’clock a worried mother called up to know what was the trouble; at half-past twelve an irate father wanted to know why his boy had not returned. Mr. Knapp asked his assistant to make inquiries, and at two the assistant telephoned that the eleven boys, very hilarious, had just come in from Barrymore, where they had eaten a late supper at the hotel after the debate. Mr. Knapp, thoroughly out of patience with them for their duplicity and lack of honor, resolved to make an example of them the next Monday morning.

On Monday morning, therefore, at chapel, Mr. Knapp read the names of the eleven boys distinctly. He said the debaters had won the contest with Barrymore, but had lost all credit for the victory through a breach of good faith. Because he could not go with them, they had remained until the last car and had indulged in a celebration supper. Therefore, he thus publicly withdrew from each boy in that group the privileges of representing the high school in any contest the school might thereafter hold during the year. He did this because a boy who could not be depended upon was unworthy to represent Roylston High School.

Addressing the boys personally he said:

“You have been guilty of a breach of good faith, boys, in that you did a thing when I was not with you, which your knowledge of our customs and our standards makes every one of you know to be wrong. You took advantage of my absence in a dishonorable way. I dislike to take from the six debaters the privileges of debating for the school, for that seems unjust to the school. I hesitate to forbid these five boys to go with the team again, for I am as anxious as I suppose they are, for the boys to redeem themselves by good behavior next time.”

The result was a scarcely concealed spirit of defiance in that high school. The students were indignant that a victory had been so lightly acknowledged; that what they thought a slight offense had been so severely punished; above all, at the ex post facto nature of the punishment, for the boys had not been told they were to return at once after the debate. This had been their custom always and Mr. Knapp had not thought it needful to give specific directions. There was a feeling that Mr. Knapp was unjustly severe; and his influence and authority weakened perceptibly as a result.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Hold a private interview with the eleven pupils after definitely deciding on a course of action. In the interview these matters should be covered: the honors brought to the school by the victory; the plans for the next debate; the changes in personnel if any; an account of the after-debate celebration held at Barrymore. Do not disclose any faultfinding attitude toward the group. Make no statements about their delinquency; ascertain their motives and attitudes toward their misconduct.

Later after discovering the ring-leader, meet him privately and go over the affair in detail. Make him admit the error by tactful questions and lead him to accept your plan to hold celebrations on home ground in the future.

Proceed in like manner until a strong minority accepts your policy. At a regular meeting of the debaters make brief announcement of the opinions, judgments and resolutions thus accumulated. Reinforce them by a few strong statements full of enthusiasm and subdued firmness in a way to show that you stand positively behind the decision to maintain the school policy.

In your own mind accept the chief responsibility for having so loosely managed affairs as to make the delinquency complained of a possibility.

COMMENTS

Mr. Knapp made two mistakes in this case. First, he failed to provide for a situation which, had he been less preoccupied, he might have foreseen; that, if they won, these boys would consider a late supper a manly and smart way of celebrating. Second, he punished them, not by taking away a personal pleasure from each, but by cutting them off from a social enterprise for the good of the school, an enterprise which was a means of growth in just that very sense of responsibility which the boys lacked when they took advantage of their principal’s absence.

If a punishment is too severe in the minds of the pupils, the administrator loses the possible endorsement of the penalty which would in fact effectively reinforce it. A punishment that does not accurately represent social conscience can have almost no value. It generates repugnance.

“The mood of repugnance tends to give rise to and to be accompanied by either a mood of anger or of sorrow, according to the degree of opposition to which it is subjected and the degree of energy available for resistance.”[6]

6.  Shand, The Foundations of Character, 406. Macmillan.

Do Not Fight Instinct

He made too much of a misdeed that grew out of very natural instinctive impulses. The public announcement was a flaunt in the face of the entire school and a severe attack on a matter which had strong public sentiment behind it. It is unwise to launch one’s self against a small misdeed in a way to make one an enemy to a popular movement which one after all desires to promote. Confidence in high school pupils must be genuine, yet a principal must safeguard them against overstrain on matters where adolescent enthusiasm easily runs wild. There is a way of trusting pupils and at the same time “fixing” circumstances so that disobedience is not likely to occur.

7. Disobedience Due to the Inefficiency of the Teacher

High school pupils become very expert in detecting the real from the imitation in the matter of character and ability in teachers. They have, as a rule, a keen respect for intellect; so much so that they will usually yield ready obedience to a teacher who can really open their eyes to the wonders that lie in the world of lessons. Intellectual attainment alone is not enough, but real learning, combined with the rare art of imparting it, will almost always win admiration and following.

The Bluffing Teacher

One of the great hindrances to good feeling and ready obedience in our American high schools is the comparatively low standard of preparation of many of their teachers. Teachers who are too young, too quickly and too superficially trained, very seldom succeed in keeping the pupils long in ignorance of their shortcomings.

Some teachers who have felt a lack of respect and a tendency to disobedience and disorder, have found the atmosphere of the school to change as if by magic when better preparation of lessons on their own part has been made. Pupils who have once known the joy of having a wide-awake, well-prepared, and keen teacher are especially quick to detect low scholarship and faulty training in subsequent instructors.

CASE 19

The Junior English class in the Warren High School was reading Macbeth under the guidance of a teacher who had just come to take the place of Miss Foster, the regular teacher, who was ill. They had reached the second act.

“Sleep that knits up the ravell’d sleave of care,” read John Harris. “What does that mean, Miss Kirk?”

Miss Kirk did not really know, for she was not a student of Shakespeare and she had not had time to prepare the lesson. She considered hastily, however, and made what she hoped was a shrewd guess.

“They wore knitted doublets in those days,” she said, “and of course they would ravel out with wear and use. So the women used to knit them up again when they needed it, in the sleeves for instance, just as we darn hose now.”

John finished Macbeth’s speech, and sat down quite satisfied that he understood it. But Harold Newcome, the minister’s son, waved his hand vigorously, and Miss Kirk let him speak.

“Father and I read this over last night together,” he averred, “and we found a different meaning from that. We found that sleave is a Scotch word and means the silk before it’s spun into thread.”

Miss Kirk was shrewd enough to say, “That is a passage upon which the authorities disagree. You may go on, Constance.” Harold, while unconvinced, was silenced for the time being.

The class reached the third scene. “He should have old turning of the key,” read Mary Bond. “Miss Kirk, I think there must be a misprint here—I don’t make sense of it.”

“There is,” Miss Kirk replied, bluffing as before. “It should read, ‘He should grow old turning the key.’ Go on.”

“But that isn’t it,” Harold cried out in his eagerness. “That expression is just like one the girls use when they say, ‘You mean old thing.’”

“Harold, please get permission to speak next time,” Miss Kirk admonished. “And don’t interrupt the reading.”

They reached the lines,

“Approach the chamber, and destroy your sight With a new Gorgon.”

“What is a Gorgon?” some one asked.

“Jennie, can you tell?” Miss Kirk was growing cautious. Jennie could not, so she asked first one and then another. Harold, although he could have told, shook his head, and waited with a sardonic smile to hear what Miss Kirk would say. Feeling obliged to answer her own question, Miss Kirk at last hazarded,

“It is a kind of weapon they had in those days. Tomorrow I want you all to look up all the words you do not know.”

At this, Harold closed his book with a bang and grinned broadly. Miss Kirk looked at him severely, and said,

“Harold, open your book and read the next lines.”

“Excuse me,” he answered, “I don’t believe I will. I’m learning so much from your wonderful definitions that I think I’d rather listen to you.”

“Harold Newcome, open your book this instant. Do you mean to do as I say?”

“I certainly do not. You don’t know as much as we do about this play. You haven’t even read the notes at the back of the book, I bet.”

“You may leave the room this instant,” Miss Kirk commanded in a rage. “Will you do that?”

“I certainly will, with pleasure,” and Harold left with a mocking bow.

At recess he gathered a group about him and explained his teacher’s ignorant mistakes. The other pupils enjoyed the joke thoroughly, and did not trouble that night to prepare the next day’s English lesson, feeling that they could either bluff or excuse themselves with so “easy” a teacher. Miss Kirk found them disrespectful and inattentive, listening to her comments and instructions with amused smiles. Her work was a total failure, and in a few days she had to give up to a more able substitute, whose preparation was such as to command respect.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

The teacher who has not had time to prepare a lesson will find it best to be quite frank with his pupils; no mistake could be greater than to pretend a knowledge which he does not have. Miss Kirk might have said to her class on that first day,

“I have just come, and have not even read over today’s lesson; and it has been several years since I read this play or saw it performed. So we shall have to work it out together, and I’ve no doubt that you can tell me many things I’ve forgotten.” Harold, who had had his father’s help in studying the act, would have been delighted at the chance to contribute his facts, and their gracious reception would have encouraged others to prepare lessons in the same thorough way.

COMMENTS

The authority of a teacher over his pupils rests upon the theory that the teacher is fit to direct the conduct of those who are younger and less able to select right courses of action. If the teacher be immature, stupid, badly educated or uncultured, this theory breaks down; the pupils themselves are quick to recognize the fact that the basis of authority does not exist.

Even when they do not consciously reason out this cause for disrespect and disobedience, they feel it, being logically minded and keenly sensitive on the subject of obedience. They feel the injustice of being asked to obey one whom they see to be unfit to control, because of his dishonesty in pretending to be what he is not. If the teacher is frank, pupils will often make generous allowances, but they rightly despise a bluffer and decline to give him loyal support.

DIVISION IV

CONCRETE CASES ARISING OUT OF SELF-PRESERVATIVE INSTINCTS

“... The training of a child ... does not consist of elimination or suppression but of direction of the native impulses so that they co-operate in a rational and organized manner.”

Angell, Psychology, p. 430.—Holt.

CASES ARISING OUT OF SELF-PRESERVATIVE INSTINCTS

Function of Instincts

By instincts are meant those natural impulses to do which are “born in a person,” and which are so strong in animal or man, that each goes on to perform the act toward which he is impelled even though he has had no previous instruction in performing that act, or even though he may not be clearly conscious of what he is doing. The nesting and migrating instincts in birds, the building of beaver dams, the hibernating of certain animals, the swarming of bees, are examples of well marked instincts among animals. Play, curiosity, and the dramatic tendencies, are equally well marked examples of instincts in children.

Their Classification

Professor Kirkpatrick divides the instincts into several groups according to the function they perform in the development of the individual. Chief among these groups of instincts, and becoming prominent in the child’s life in about the order named are (1) the self-preservative and individualistic instincts, (2) the adaptive instincts, (3) the gregarious or social instincts, (4) the parental instincts, (5) the expressive and (6) the regulative instincts.

It will surprise the teacher whose attention has not already been called to the matter to note how many of the disorders of the schoolroom grow out of instincts which are entirely natural to the child and indeed highly useful to the individual for the most part, their undesirability in the schoolroom being due only to the lack of proper control, that is, to a power which the child has not yet acquired, and which it is the function of the school to teach.

Consider, for example, the lowest of these groups, the self-preservative and individualistic, as opposed to the altruistic impulses. At first thought such instincts as anger, fear, fighting, selfishness, and acquisitiveness seem ignoble and unworthy of expression. Yet every one of these impulses, undoubtedly, has a useful function to perform in the child’s life, impelling to experiences and habits which lay the foundation, at least, for the development of the higher instincts which are to dominate later.

This is not the place to go into a detailed discussion of the various instincts. The thing to remember is, first, that most of the impulses of children have an instinctive basis hence are not, in themselves, wrong but become wrong only as they fail to be brought under gradual control, and, secondly, the impulses are not to be supressed, but rather the energy found to be expended in harmful ways must be divided into channels of legitimate action. We shall now consider some of the most undesirable forms of the self-preservative and individualistic impulses.

1. Disorders Due to Laziness, Clumsiness, Noise and Fidgets

(1) Laziness. It is almost absurd to advise a teacher what to do with a lazy pupil in the first grade. However, lest there be some teachers who may discover a lazy pupil among their number, it will not be amiss to offer a few suggestions. If the first grade teacher can persuade herself that there are no lazy first grade pupils, she will have gone a long way toward an effective preventative of laziness. Too long has song and story focused attention upon the lazy scholar by making him a glaring example of failure only to suggest that he exists, when in reality there are extremely few lazy first grade pupils.

It may be that a child is physically defective or is suffering from languor due to poor food or a badly ventilated schoolroom. Pupils very often are forced to sit near the stove or radiator and the continuous heat makes them sleepy and the teacher accuses them of being lazy. Sometimes parents are so short sighted as to deprive their children of the required amount of sleep, then the child is sleepy the following day, and the teacher mistakes it for laziness. Many children are so active and alive that when they are required to sit still they become drowsy. There are many causes that contribute to a child’s inactivity. It is unnatural for a child to be slow and inactive. Perhaps it would be better to assume that there can be no lazy children in the first grade.

The first thing to do toward a child that seems lazy is to study the case carefully. If the child is inactive, thereby appearing lazy, because of his physical condition or the wrong condition of any part of his surroundings, the cause should be removed. Then, if the laziness does not disappear, it becomes necessary to interest the pupil. Practically the same methods can be used that are applied to the indifferent child. It is only a matter of interesting the pupil. With older children a confidential talk showing the unfortunate results of neglect of work will often accomplish much.

Lazy Pupil

Sometimes a teacher has a pupil that is very slow, so slow that is becomes a source of annoyance, because he is always behind. Not a word or look of the teacher should suggest to the child that the teacher even thinks him slow. Little tasks should be assigned and the command added to see how quickly the work can be done. It is quite the wrong thing to say, “Hurry up! Don’t be so slow!” On the contrary it will encourage the child to say, “I want you to see how soon you can do this.” The suggestion should be given in a kind and appreciative manner. As soon as the child has done the task, though it may not have been in a hurry, the teacher should say something to this effect, “I tell you, you can hurry, can’t you! When I want something done quickly, I will ask you to do it.” A smile and pat on the child’s head will encourage the pupil. Two or three lessons a day for several weeks will change the child who is slow merely through habit, and what is better the teacher is doing the child a great service for future life. The teacher must remember that all commands must be suggestive.

ILLUSTRATION 1

The morning after the report cards were given out in the Whittier School in Hanover, Massachusetts, Miss Jamieson was met at the door of her room by Anderson Wheeler, one of the smartest yet most mischievous boys in her room.

“Miss Jamieson, why didn’t I get more than ‘Fair’ in geography? Harold Stetson got ‘Excellent’ and I know as much as he does.”

“Come into the room, Anderson, and we’ll talk the matter over.”

“Bring your geography up to my desk.”

“Now do you remember the day I asked you to name the mountain ranges in the eastern part of North America?”

“Yes.”

“Do you remember that you said you had not studied your lesson?”

“Yes.”

“Do you remember the week we studied the industries of New England?”

Anderson nodded his head in assent.

“There was not one day that you could give me a correct answer to a question.”

“Just how much time do you spend in studying geography, Anderson?”

“Not very much.”

“No, Anderson, you could get as high a mark as any boy in this room if you wanted to. You really like geography, don’t you?”

“Yes, I do. My father is always talking about things that are in our book.”

“Well, now, Anderson, why don’t you try to learn more about them? You could be of so much help to us in our geography class if you would talk over these subjects with your father.”

“Try this month to work up to an excellent grade. Will you?”

“Yes, Miss Jamieson. I believe I’ve fooled my time away this month.”

Thus, one teacher stimulated the worst laggard in her room.

(2) Fidgets. Teachers very often speak of certain pupils being nervous, fidgety, or impatient. All these faults will respond to the same treatment. As a rule they are due to the same cause. It is necessary to discover the cause first. Generally, some physical defect of the child causes him to be nervous or impatient. The teacher can not remove this, hence, she must be patient with the child. Patience will not remove the trouble but will go a great way in keeping the child under control. The parents should be consulted and an attempt made to have the child examined by a physician. Most parents will be glad to coöperate with the teacher and soon the child will be happy and contented. Whenever the teacher can not enlist the coöperation of the parents she must do the next best thing. If the trouble can not be entirely removed, it can be allayed. Care must be exercised not to keep the pupil too long at any one occupation. It may be necessary to have some extra busy work or interesting pictures or picture books, so that frequent changes can be made in his work. A nervous child, too, needs more exercise. Have him do some work for the school, e. g., collect pencils or paper. Gradually the teacher should accustom the child to be satisfied with what will interest and keep the other pupils quiet. This can be done by withdrawing his extra attractions and indulgences until he is under the same regime as the other pupils. If the child is nervous and impatient, not as a result of some physical condition, then the difficulty can be handled more easily, but by the same method as described above. Children may be nervous and impatient because of home conditions or simply as a habit. In either instance treat as above. A nervous or impatient child should never be scolded for annoyances due to nervousness. He can not help himself. He needs encouragement and kind treatment.

(3) Noise. There are teachers who are constantly annoyed by a ceaseless clatter of pencils, pencil-boxes, rulers, books and other school paraphernalia. This constant din of noise is usually due to the teacher’s bad management. The following was told the author by a teacher who lived through her ignorance and arrived at the place where she saw that she was the cause of the endless noise that pervaded her room. This teacher had “little punishments” attached to various annoyances. One of the most absurd was the requirement that if a pupil dropped a pencil or other desk property, he had to pick up the object and then stand by the side of the desk, as a punishment, until the teacher permitted him to be seated. The most surprising thing about the method was that it did not abate the number of so-called offenses. Little did this teacher remember that she herself sometimes let something fall to the floor, and that the same thing might happen in the case of the pupils. This teacher finally discovered that the dropping of a pencil or book was but an accidental occurrence; and was not at all to be termed an annoyance; and that if she did not notice it no one else would. The teacher who thinks that an occasional dropping of a pencil or other object to the floor is an offense is to be pitied.

There is no such a thing as a schoolroom in which nothing ever falls to the floor. It is true, it may become an intentional annoyance on the part of the pupils. But it will not become such until the teacher makes it such by her constant faultfinding about the annoyance. The teacher must assume that pupils do not let things fall to the floor intentionally. Whenever she has that attitude about it she will not be annoyed by the trivial occurrence, and furthermore, her pupils will never let things fall intentionally.

Noiseless Movements

Teachers often experience a great deal of trouble in having pupils handle their books and other desk property quietly. Little wonder! What boy or girl does not recall the following expression? “Oh my! Children how much noise you make! Can’t you put your books away more quietly?” Sometimes the expression is further emphasized by saying, “I will not let you have any recess, if you can’t put your books away with less noise.” The teacher who resorts to such expressions will not be able to abate the noise attendant upon putting books away so long as she uses this method. To pay attention to an annoyance of this nature is only to aggravate it. But this is a very common schoolroom annoyance and must be remedied. It can be remedied, but not by a foolish plan. The first grade teacher on the first day must take occasion to suggest how she wants the books, pencils and rulers put away. Her pupils will do as she has commanded. Though they may have made more noise than she expected, she will win her point if she says, “Thank you, children. I like to have you put your books away like that.” The next time she must say, “Now, children, let us put away our books, and let us see if we can do it as nicely as we did this morning.” Such expressions of suggestive control will work upon the children like a charm. They will put their books away much more quietly than before. The teacher must always approve the action of the preceding occasion. To make the method more effective, the teacher may tell the pupils, when a visitor comes in, “Now, children, show Mrs. B. how nicely you can put your books away.” The children will try hard. It is only natural that they should. However, if they make more noise than necessary, the teacher will strengthen her influence by telling the visitor that she is trying to have the pupils put their books away quietly and by approval she wishes to gain her point. There is no doubt she will establish the habit among the pupils. She needs only to keep at it for several weeks, until the putting away of books and pencils will be done quietly as a habit.

Passing Quietly

Some teachers wonder why their pupils walk so noisily in the schoolroom. There are few exceptions where it is not the teacher’s fault. Whenever such an annoyance exists, it is necessary that the teacher have a systematic method for passing about the room and in and out of the room. To call a class and allow it to use its own pleasure in getting to the recitation seat or the recitation room is a prolific source of confusion and noise, and the most tactful methods to abate noise can not prevent it. Pupils should be instructed to slip out of their seats to the right or left, as the teacher desires, and then stand at the side of their desks. At a signal of the teacher they should pass forward. If there are several rows of pupils, and if they are required to come forward during the recitation, one row should lead, the others following in order. They should all approach the recitation seats from one side and seat themselves in the same order as that observed in marching forward. In passing from one room to another and in and out of the schoolroom, system will aid materially in abating noise. The wise teacher will remember that there must be some noise, but let it be “orderly noise.”

The following little incident explains a tactful teacher’s method of dealing with unnecessary noise. A certain class had passed to the recitation room quite noisily. The teacher kindly asked the class to return to their seats. When they were seated, she said, with a smile on her face, “Children, let us try to come to the recitation more quietly.” Quite naturally, the class responded; not as the teacher wanted them to do, but better than the first time. With a kindly look on her face, and a smile indicating approval, she said, “Thank you; that was better.” For the next recitation she intimated how pleased she was with their attempt and asked them to repeat it. The teacher had pleased them by her kindly manner, and the pupils responded by complying with her desire. Tactfully she kept this up until it became a habit with the class. Never did she scold or reprimand the class for noisily passing about the room. What this teacher did can be done by every other teacher.

Sometimes a single pupil has the habit of dragging himself noisily about the schoolroom. This, too, is easily remedied. The pupil should not be reprimanded for it. The teacher should call him aside after school and in a friendly way tell him about it. It will win the pupil to carefulness if the teacher can say, “I know you never thought about it, and of course I shall appreciate it if you will be more careful.” Now, the pupil may not always be more careful, or may even forget. However, the teacher should take the first occasion to say truthfully, “Thank you; I knew you could get about more quietly.” It may be necessary to use this method for several days, but the teacher should not despair. It will effect a cure.

Every teacher recalls that when a visitor or visitors came in, pupils were far more noisy than usual. It seemed as though they dropped every article they had in their possession, walked as disorderly as they could, and left the room without restraint. And nearly every teacher can recall how she told the pupils, after the visitors were gone, that she was ashamed of them. Telling them that their behavior caused the teacher to feel ashamed did not lead them to act better upon another occasion. It is a far better way kindly to inform the pupils of their mistake and suggest what the teacher expects. Then when the visitor comes expect the behavior desired, as well as see that the pupils are busy. When the visitor is gone, approve whatever efforts the pupils made to do better. It will encourage them to do their best on future occasions. The method of approval will succeed, not the first or second time perhaps, but by patient application.

Too much emphasis can not be placed upon the method of dealing with general schoolroom noise. As a rule, not any single annoyance is marked enough to be picked out and dealt with as an offense. General schoolroom noise will always be aggravated by the teacher who treats it as an offense and finds fault with it. The only method to use in dealing with it is to propose a better way and then approve whatever the pupils do. Keep on suggesting the better way and approving, and the desired results will be obtained. The method properly applied can not fail. There is much, too, in the very attitude of the teacher. A teacher who can make her pupils feel that she expects nothing but their best efforts in passing about the schoolroom or handling their schoolroom belongings, will get the pupil’s very best efforts.

(4) Clumsiness. The human race wastes an incalculable amount of energy and nervous force because of the unnecessary noise which it makes in its thoughtless habit of doing things in the first way which presents itself, rather than in a way which has been carefully devised to save noise and confusion and needless expenditure of energy. One of the finest things a good school aims to do is to teach its pupils how to work quietly and to overcome clumsiness.

CASE 20 (EIGHTH GRADE)

John Creel wears big, heavy shoes of cowhide, and walks across the floor with the tread of a small army. He hits a few desk-supports on his way to the blackboard and knocks a paint box off a desk on his way back, giving rise not only to its initial clatter, but to an indignant splutter of protest from the small girl who owns the paint box. The teacher, a nervous maiden lady of prim ideas, is greatly annoyed.

“John Creel!” she exclaims. “Do see if you can’t walk without making a noise that would wake the dead, and do try not to hit everything within a mile of you as you move about. If I were a boy of your size, I’d try to overcome my awkwardness, instead of shambling about that way. Now try to sit still until recess.”

John, within his outer mail of grinning indifference, has all a big boy’s sensitiveness to ridicule and reproof. He pretends now, before the other pupils in his school grade to regard the teacher’s reproof with scorn, and frequently scrapes his feet along the floor, just to show that he doesn’t care. But he really wishes that he didn’t fall over everything as he does, and he wishes that his father could afford to buy him the neatly fitting, lighter shoes that other boys wear. But he would not have anyone know these secret longings, for the world, and there is small chance that the prim one at the desk will have insight enough to know what goes on in John Creel’s towsled head and never shows itself in word or deed.

Shambling to a class the next day, John drops a book, from sheer awkwardness, from sheer lack of muscular control. Miss Prunes-and-Prisms quite loses patience at this, and calls out,

“John Creel, you may stand in the corner until you can learn to come to class without making so much noise.”

John goes, stands there in a stoop-shouldered, grinning mockery of young manhood, and becomes the devoted hater of Miss Prunes-and-Prisms. The dislike and resentment, which has been undefined in him before, formulates itself now into a powerful resolution to make her life miserable for the rest of the term. And, being not without mental resources, John is able to carry out this resolution; Miss Prunes-and-Prisms has nervous prostration when school is over, as a result, and both John and his school bear a bad reputation.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Treating the Fidgets

Pay no attention to John at the moment. Merely say to yourself, “Here is a bit of disorder for which I have not yet given any lessons in control. I must remedy my neglect in this respect.”

Next analyze John’s problem into its elements. For him to get his drink of water it is necessary that (1) he turn in his seat, (2) get out of the seat, (3) turn toward the hallway door, (4) walk across the floor, (5) open the hall door, (6) drink, (7) close the door, etc.

With these steps of the problem in mind, say to the whole school, later in the day, when the pupils are beginning to get tired and “fidgety”: “Children, you have worked first rate this afternoon. Now let’s play a little while. All take good positions, and I’ll tell you just what to do. I’m going to ask you to turn in your seats just as if you were going to get up, only this time nobody gets up. You are to do it without hitting your elbows against the desk or dragging your feet or doing anything that will make any unnecessary noise. Be all ready when I say ‘one!’” [After a pause.] “‘One!’ One boy missed! Try it again! Position! ‘One!’ One girl missed! Once more! Good! Everybody right this time! Now I am going to ask you to rise without making any noise and without touching the desk with your hands. Be ready when I say, ‘Two.’ That was good. Now we’ll try both movements together. ‘One, two!’ Right. Be seated. It is recess time now, and I will count for you. You may turn, rise, and turn again in the same way you did a moment ago. I wonder how many will remember to come back from recess just as quietly!” Do not forget to approve the children for coming in more quietly than formerly.

On the following day drill in the same way on the art of sitting down quietly, as if the pupils had just come in from recess. Repeat these drills whenever they are needed, until the habit is firmly established of moving about quietly and in orderly sequence. Drill in a similar way on other little disorders of the room until each difficulty, one by one, is overcome.

COMMENTS

Planning Reforms

Keep in mind, while planning reforms, the several possible causes for awkwardness and noise, namely:

1. The pupil may not yet have subdued his instinctive impulses to conventional form or to regulation of any kind. All the impulses act at once, we may say, and they get in the way of each other. The child needs to be taught which part of an act to perform first, which second, etc., in order to perform it skillfully, just as in bicycle riding, playing the scales on a musical instrument, etc.

2. When boys and girls reach the period of rapid growth, the body itself is changing its proportions; naturally, it takes time to adjust one’s self to one’s body. Meanwhile there is an “awkward age,” which is annoying to the teacher, but much more so to the child. The teacher should recognize the fact that this is transition time and treat it as a perfectly natural physiological period, doing what she can all the while to eradicate bad habits of posture and movement, but recognizing at the same time that some patience is necessary on the part of both pupil and teacher.

3. Awkwardness may be due to imperfect development of the muscles or of the nerves which extend to the muscles.

None of these cases can be helped by scolding or nagging or impatience of any kind. The first can be remedied by drills similar to those indicated above. The second can be greatly helped by games requiring exactness or grace of movement. The third can not be remedied except sometimes indirectly when the trouble is due to illness or malnutrition, where the cause of the difficulty may be within control.

The following illustration indicates how the drills may be utilized to prevent disorder. The next shows how to make use of the games.

ILLUSTRATION 1 (FIRST GRADE)

Training muscles to unaccustomed work.

Training Muscles

Miss Kate Winslow was a first grade teacher who had just graduated from a normal school in which great attention was paid to the use of water colors as an aid to nature study and art. Miss Winslow was anxious to introduce water color work in her own schoolroom.

“Take my advice,” said a fellow-teacher, “and do nothing of the kind! I tried it once and it nearly gave me nervous prostration. Not a day passed but somebody spilled the water or overturned his ‘paint,’ and before the end of the first week the desks were daubed with pigments from one end of the schoolroom to the other. If you are wise you’ll keep out of it. First grade children are too young for that kind of work.”

Miss Winslow was not daunted, however. “I believe I can teach the children how to handle the materials,” she said to herself. “If I use the same methods which have already proved successful in training them to put away their books, to care for their wraps, to come in quietly at recess, and to keep the room tidy, and to take care of the plants and the waste paper—I’m going to try it, anyway.”

“Yes, I think you can manage it. If only you are not in too great a hurry to get at the real work of painting,” said her principal when Miss Winslow proposed her venture to him. “Better take a few days just for drill, and not try to do any real work of painting until all the preliminaries can be successfully executed by the children without loss of time and without confusion.”

Thus encouraged, Miss Winslow analyzed the process of distributing the materials that would be needed, into its elements, and then took the whole time of the lesson period for one week for teaching the children how to distribute and handle the material. She first told the children that she had planned a great pleasure for them in their school work, arousing their interest and curiosity and desire to coöperate with her in the attempt to reproduce in colors some of the beautiful things they had been studying in the nature study period. “Only careful children can do such wonderful work as this,” she said, “so the very first thing we have to learn is how to do every part of the work in a careful way. These little dishes that I have in my hand are for the water. You may name one boy and one girl whom you think could pass all these little dishes to the children without making a noise when they are placed on the desks.

“Very well—George and Mary. I have found two little trays just large enough for first grade children to carry. George may take one tray of water dishes and Mary the other. The children at the seats may watch and tell, by and by, which was the more quiet, George or Mary.”

In watching, comparing one with the other, and deciding between the two pupils chosen, the onlookers are also learning how to do the work properly; but the teacher must not fail to commend both the children who have passed the dishes, and then may say:

“Mary, you may choose another careful girl and George may choose another careful boy to gather up the dishes without making any noise that can be helped. That was well done. Now, this time I am going to choose a boy and a girl to pass them a second time. They are going to try just as hard as George and Mary did.”

This time the teacher will choose a clumsy boy and a clumsy girl to do the work. They will have had the example of the more deft children to help them, and at the same time are getting a lesson in motor control that will soon be needed.

The teacher must not blame the children if they do less well. Say, rather:

“Thank you, children. You did try, didn’t you?” Then, turning to the school, say: “How many of you would like to see when you go home tonight if you can place some hard thing like a salt-cellar or jackknife or little dish down on a hard table and do it so quietly that nobody can hear you? I’ll ask you tomorrow to tell me how many could do it, and tomorrow we are going to do something even harder than we have done today. I’m going to let you choose some one to fill all these little dishes with water and not spill one drop. You be thinking tonight whom we can ask to do such a very hard thing as that.”

In this way, Miss Winslow drilled the children on every part of the process of water color painting, including the mixing of the pigments, so that when the actual use of the pigments began it was done without noise or confusion or loss of time, and with only very rare accidents. The children were delighted and asked for no higher honor than to be able to fill or empty the water glasses—the most difficult thing for little children to do “without spilling.” So eager were they to be thus honored that they frequently drilled themselves at noontime in carrying a glass of water across the room on one of the little trays.

ILLUSTRATION 2

Use of games in securing motor control.

Games

Miss Winter, the efficient young principal of the city’s newest and best-equipped grammar school, had realized keenly that her older pupils were entering the “awkward age,” and she determined to eliminate that uncomfortable time from her school so far as possible. She reasoned that too much talking to the pupils about clumsiness and awkwardness would merely make them self-conscious, and hence even more awkward to coöperate with her and with each other in training to quiet and orderly movements in the schoolroom. She realized that another effective aid in this work would be the use of games requiring exact motor control. She encouraged the use of basketball, croquet, tennis, games of skill of all kinds. “House games” that could be adapted to the schoolroom were often introduced into the regular routine as “rest periods,” after a particularly fatiguing period of study. The children became very deft in catching bean-bags, knocking down Indian clubs, hitting a mark, catching balls, etc., and with each new accomplishment came a little better control over the clumsy muscles, though, of course, the pupils were not thinking much about this part of the program.

One part of Miss Winter’s plan for physical development was just now causing her much perplexity, however. The big sanitary swimming tank in the gymnasium was the chief pride of the school, and now the fond mothers seemed leagued to prohibit its use. She had just received five letters complaining that Johnnie, Bess, and Margaret had caught colds from the frightful exposure of damp heads to the winter air. But that was absurd. No gymnasium teacher could be more particular than hers about dry heads after the water frolics. Colds that came from other sources were being blamed on the innocent swimming tank by women who believed it a new-fangled superfluity. Surely they did not understand its significance in the lives and health and training of their children, or they would coöperate instead of oppose!

Miss Winter reread the letters. Her impulse was to ignore and override their protests. Didn’t the school board know better than the individual parents the needs of the children at large? But—such a course would generate antagonism between herself and the parents of her pupils, and she wanted harmony. But how could she avoid the discord and induce the mothers to applaud the innovation which they now resented? A solution presented itself—a demonstration of the benefits of the tank! Rapidly she sketched out ideas. Then she called a teachers’ meeting for the afternoon and set her plan afoot. And the children were delighted with its announcement next morning.

Three busy weeks passed, and then the day arrived for the swimming exhibition. At two o’clock all the members of the school repaired to the gymnasium and ranged themselves along the walls, smiling consciously up at mother faces lining the balcony above. For the parents had responded warmly to an attractive invitation and had come in a body, each bringing a quarter to help pay for a wonderful new electrical apparatus for drying hair. That precaution at least, if they must concede the tank, was sensible and praise-worthy, they had said.

Such doings! Jimmy Cole exhibited his backward dive from the spring-board; Frank Lane, his marvelous ability to swim under water; and Alfreda Johnson floated serenely for five minutes while she smiled up at her mother in the gallery. Then there was a model first swimming lesson, and next somebody trod water, and after that a whole class joined in an exciting game, amid so much splashing and laughing and rollicking fun that the mothers felt young as they watched, and ceased to begrudge the time filched from readin’, ’ritin’, and ’rithmetic and the dollars spent on swimming suits.

And after two absorbing hours it was all over and the excellence of the new drying instrument was proved.

The mothers were completely won over and proud of their young swimmers. The big tank lacked no champions now, and Miss Winter as she looked upon the radiant faces all about her, clasped her hands and was thankful that a threatened opposition had melted into hearty approval.

Children are frequently blamed collectively for being a “hard school to manage,” when the causes of ill-behavior might be found in schoolroom conditions for which the children are not at all responsible.

CASE 21 (SEVENTH GRADE). IMPROPER PHYSICAL CONDITIONS

Strained Eye

Miss Cornelius was a thoroughly conscientious seventh grade teacher who secured excellent results from most of her pupils but who had one row of particularly troublesome children who frequently failed in their lessons and still more frequently diverted her attention from her recitations by their inattention to their studies and by fighting. It was not merely these mild form of restlessness, however, which troubled Miss Cornelius and violated her high ideals of what good order should be, but frequent indisposition in the case of several of them kept them constantly behind the other members of the class in their school work. Frequently one or another of the children would be found with his arms folded on the desk and his head in his arms, and when questioned would say, “O, Miss Cornelius, my head aches. Won’t you please excuse me from reciting today?”

At first Miss Cornelius did excuse the children when requested to do so, but, finding these same children seemed perfectly well when they came to school in the morning, and that they never moped very long on the school grounds before joining in the games as heartily as the others, she decided that the children were imposing upon her, and thereafter became more and more severe in dealing with them, frequently keeping them after school to make up the missed lessons.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Miss Cornelius received some light on the subject a few days later which caused her to open her eyes widely.

The “Trouble Department”

“Oh, yes,” she said to the visiting nurse when she appeared at the schoolroom door with a request that she might test the vision and hearing of the children in that room; “test any of the children that you want to. That row over there is my ‘Trouble Department,’” she added jokingly. “Suppose you begin there. That will give me a chance to conduct this geography lesson in peace.”

The nurse smiled and began calling one after another of the children to the examiner’s office, where she tested each of the children for adenoids, weak lungs, defective vision and hearing, etc. At the recess period she came to Miss Cornelius with the query,

“Why did you tell me that this row of children was your ‘Trouble Department’?” Miss Cornelius laughed a little.

“Because they make me so much trouble by just fidgeting and wriggling about, and by having such poor lessons. They are always inventing some excuse or other for not doing their work.”

“Why do you think they ‘invent’ their excuses?” asked the nurse, rather gravely.

“Oh, because they are all right in the morning, and many times when I stay here after school, for one reason or another, I see the very same children going past with other boys or playing as I pass them on my way home. They can’t be very ill if they recover so quickly.”

“At what time in the day do the children begin to be troublesome? You say they are all right when they come to school in the morning.”

“About half past ten or eleven o’clock, I should think. I never noticed particularly.”

“About what time does the sun begin to shine in at that row of windows?”

Miss Cornelius looked surprised, but answered, “About ten o’clock.”

“Are the text-books that the children are using printed on dull or glazed paper?” pursued the nurse.

“Most of them are printed on glazed paper. We get the most attractive books for the children that we can find,” answered Miss Cornelius proudly.

“I see,” said the visiting nurse. “May I tell you what I have found in this examination? Six of the children who sit in that row have defective vision in the left eye, that is, in the eye next to that row of windows.” It was Miss Cornelius’ turn to look grave.

“The glaring sunlight which streams in through those windows after ten o’clock, shining on the glazed pages of those text-books, is ruining the eyesight of your pupils. It is eyestrain that makes them so nervous and fidgety. I shall immediately ask the board to change the lighting of the room, and I advise you, when ordering more text-books, to see that you get those which are printed on unglazed paper.”

COMMENTS

Two elements in this situation should have put Miss Cornelius on her guard, (1) the fact that none of the children in the “window row” were personally hostile toward the teacher, at least not before they were kept after school so frequently to make up lessons; and, secondly, that they were all located in one row. These considerations should have suggested to the teacher that there must be some general cause, not yet discovered, which would account for the apparently unaccountable disorder of that particular group of pupils. Further analysis of the situation would have disclosed the fact that after the sunlight became very bright the children’s faces flushed, the eyes looked tired, heads drooped on the hands, and finally on the folded arms, and in the case of the children who were suffering most-real headaches, sometimes even inducing nausea after the long-continued effort to keep looking at the glazed page of the text-book.

It is a difficult matter at best to control the lighting of a schoolroom so that no one will suffer. But something will be accomplished if teachers will remember that too much light is just as harmful as too little. The best results will perhaps be attained if the windows are provided with shades which can be drawn for either the upper or lower half of the window without covering both halves at the same time. This can be accomplished by having two shades for each window instead of one, one rolling from the top of the window down to the middle, the other beginning at the middle and rolling down the remainder of the way, or else rolling up from the bottom. Very few adults who are suffering from eyestrain can sit quietly. Still less can children do so, especially when they do not at all realize what is making them so uncomfortable. Even if they could be made to sit quietly, this would not in any degree justify the injury from eyestrain that is being wrought through ignorance or neglect on the part of school authorities.

ILLUSTRATION (SECOND GRADE)

Miss Cornelius was not an intentionally negligent teacher. She simply had not learned to keep on searching for the cause of trouble until the real cause was found. Miss Jackson, referred to below, took a more thorough method of testing out her difficulty.

Sick Child Cannot Study

Miss Jackson taught second grade, and took great delight in making her school work as attractive as possible to the children. They rewarded her, for the most part with unlimited devotion, but in spite of her best effort she had never been able to awaken the interest of one of her pupils, a beautiful, winsome child of nine years—a year older than most of the children in the class. Jeanette was not obstinate. She tried to get her lessons, but she never had them. She held her book patiently before her eyes day after day, and, after long perusal of her lesson, invariably answered, when the recitation period came, “I don’t know, Miss Jackson.”

One day, when Miss Jackson’s patience was about exhausted, she sat down by Jeanette’s side, determined to find out if her failure was due to “just laziness.”

“Jeanette, tell me why you did not have your lesson today?”

“I don’t know, ma’am. I studied.”

“Are the lessons too hard? You understand them when I explain them, do you not?” As Miss Jackson said this she reached out her hand hoping to increase the confidence between herself and Jeanette, and clasped it over hers. As she did so she noticed how hot was the little hand that lay in her own. Surprised, she looked at Jeanette’s face. It was beautifully flushed, though ordinarily rather pale, and the eyes were bright but a little unnatural. “Never mind, dear!” said Miss Jackson, without waiting for Jeanette to answer, “I know you try. I see you try every day. Some day you are going to understand it all. That is enough for today. I want you to have a nice play now. Would you like this orange?”

Miss Jackson went home very much dissatisfied, and hardly able to wait for the following day to come when she would see Jeanette again. Miss Jackson had taken a course of lectures in nursing one year when she had been ill herself and was not yet strong enough to teach, but she thought the lectures on nursing would be a help sometime in taking care both of herself and her pupils. The little hot hand of Jeanette had brought all those hospital lectures vividly to mind again.

Next morning she slipped her clinical thermometer into her hand bag, and before school opened she called Jeanette and said:

“Was the orange good? Let’s play this morning that Miss Jackson is the doctor and is going to take Jeanette’s temperature. Open your mouth, dear.”

It was as Miss Jackson suspected. The thermometer read 101.2 degrees. Miss Jackson immediately phoned a request for the visiting nurse to call. The nurse looked even more grave over Jeanette’s case than Miss Jackson did, when she said,

“I’m afraid, Miss Jackson, that it’s a case of incipient tuberculosis. We must notify the parents at once.”

The result of the interview was that Jeanette was taken out of school and put under the doctor’s care. Later when much better she was transferred to the open air school and today she thanks Miss Jackson for being a comparatively strong girl, fully up to grade and no longer struggling with lessons which could not be learned. Miss Jackson had gone to the bottom of Jeanette’s laziness.

2. Indifference

(1) Indifference due to lack of accord between school requirements and instinctive interests. Frequently, a teacher complains that certain pupils can not be kept at work. This is due to indifference, and in some instances affects an entire room or school. Often the physiological conditions of the child or of the schoolroom are such as to make the pupil dull. If a pupil is indifferent because of such conditions, it is necessary to remove the defect. The parent must be enlisted. If this can not be done, then the teacher must do the best that can be done to interest the child. This may help, but it will not remove the condition of indifference, for no one can manifest an interest in that which surrounds him when his ailing body demands his attention.

If inattention or indifference is due to improper physical conditions of the schoolroom, then the teacher must shoulder the blame. There is no excuse for such conditions. The schoolroom must be properly heated. No teacher should be so indifferent himself as to allow a room to become too hot or stuffy when an open window or two would remedy either condition. Ventilation is one of the most important features of schoolroom sanitation. Study it carefully and then see that the ventilation is as nearly perfect as it can be made. Even though there is a janitor, by no means depend upon him entirely to care for the ventilation; look after it personally.

Sometimes pupils may be indifferent because they fail to find enough in their school work to interest them. When such is the case it is a tell-tale condition, and means that the teacher is failing to do her duty. It is not a difficult matter for a primary teacher to interest every pupil. It is her business to see that the little ones have something to do, and that that something shall interest them and advance their development.

Hates School

The primary teacher is sometimes confronted by a pupil who does not like to go to school. Even after several weeks, when the teacher believes she has done all she can do to interest the child, he still insists he does not like to go to school. What is worse, the dislike is growing and retarding the child’s progress.

A procedure that has saved many a child that disliked the school is to go to the parents and in a friendly way take up the matter. The teacher should not try to evade the matter, but tell the mother plainly that the child dislikes school, and assume that it may be the teacher’s fault. The teacher should inform the mother that if she is at fault she would consider it a great favor if the mother would tell her just where the trouble lies. Assurance should be given that the teacher will be glad to remedy any defects on her part. At this point the teacher must not fail to approve of the child in any way she can. She should compliment the work he has done, and point out what the possibilities are in the child. The child’s deportment should be complimented also. No teacher knows until she has tried what effect it may have upon a mother, especially if she adds to her remarks, “I really like your little boy (or girl),” and then states just why. Usually, this method will effect the remedy. When the child learns from his mother of the teacher’s interest, he will look upon the teacher as upon one who loves him.

The teacher should then make the most of the advantages gained by the visit to the mother. Show the child every consideration in the schoolroom. If he does not have his lessons as he should, there should not be a word or sign of faultfinding. That would off-set all the good done by the visit. Whatever the child does accomplish should be approved and assistance given where needed.

Within a few days the teacher should make it her business to visit the home again, and if the child has shown the slightest increase in interest the teacher should very tactfully approve it. Care must be taken not to overdraw the situation, since, to the parent, such statements may seem to be false. No one knows a child’s likes and dislikes better than the mother knows them.

(2) Indifference due to parent’s attitude. Sometimes the parents themselves through suggestion unconsciously stimulate a feeling of indifference on the part of the children which handicaps them throughout all their school life.

CASE 22 (FIRST GRADE)

Beginning School

“John is six years old today and I’m going to start him off to school. I’ll be thankful enough to be rid of his noise for a few hours in the day and to get a chance to do my work in peace. John is such a noisy boy! He nearly drives me distracted sometimes!”

It was Mrs. Basset who was speaking. John continued ‘playing sojer’ long enough to give his drum an extra loud banging, as he remarked, “I ain’t going to school. I’m a sojer. Sojers don’t have to go to school.”

The truth was that John, having no older brothers and sisters to instruct him in such matters, had very little idea what sort of a place school was, but from the irritation expressed by his mother’s words, and the slight whine in her voice, he not unnaturally drew the inference that school was a place where mothers sent children to get rid of them and to punish them. Naturally this impression did not cause John to be kindly disposed toward his new environment. He left home crying, was still crying when he reached the school room, and sulked and wept by turns throughout the day, remembering meanwhile his beloved drum and the disillusionment of “sojer” life. “Time softened somewhat the poignancy of his grief” at having to go to school but he never got over the feeling that school was a place of punishment—a feeling that grew stronger rather than weaker as days went by, because of various and frequent punishments, which his teacher felt bound to administer as a result of his indifference and in order to keep him up to grade. John never learned to like school.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Treat with redoubled kindness the child who is doubly handicapped by not only being suddenly thrown into new surroundings, but by being obliged to meet this ordeal without the active encouragement and sympathetic coöperation of members of his home. During his first year his attitude toward school is being formed for all future years. The teacher then may well make a special effort in behalf of such a child in order to win his confidence and secure his hearty coöperation in the daily lessons.

All the while the teacher is working to gain the child’s liking for school, he may encourage the child with little expressions of approval, play with him on the schoolground and see that he enjoys himself in school. The teacher can walk home with him and tell him fascinating stories, or it would not at all be out of the way to give him some little favor as candy, pencil, or a picture. There can be no question that the child will learn to like school if the teacher tactfully uses this method.

Never try to conquer a child’s dislike for school by punishments. Unhappiness can not be cured by adding more unhappiness.

COMMENTS

John’s teacher did not analyze the situation sufficiently to discover the relation between John’s attitude toward school and the home attitude toward John and toward his individual interests. The mother was wrong, of course, in feeling that peace and quiet and the accomplishment of a certain amount of work was of more importance than intelligent understanding of John’s childish impulses, interests and instincts; but John’s teacher made exactly the same mistake in feeling that by accomplishing a certain amount of work, “keeping up to grade,” her responsibility was discharged. Both parent and teacher failed to apply the principle of initiative in coöperation. Both tried to suppress John’s individualistic instincts rather than to utilize them for his advancement.

ILLUSTRATION (THIRD GRADE)

Dislike of School

Mr. James was a teacher in a private school in Kentucky. He had one third grade pupil who threatened to leave school. Mr. James could not learn why, but decided he would visit the home. He took initiative and told the pupil that he would spend Sunday in the home. While there he said nothing about the child’s dislike for school, but tactfully approved all his good traits. When the parent spoke of the child’s dislike for school he remarked, “When he has gone a little longer, he will like school so well you can’t coax him away.” Mr. James strove to make himself genial and jovial in the home. He showed an interest in the other children, in the home itself and in its activities, and he captivated the child when he went out in the afternoon with the father to look at the cows, horses, and swine, and to take a walk over the farm. All the while he had the child by the hand and manifested no end of pleasure in the farm products. The visit had the desired effect. The child never again even hinted at a dislike of the school. He came regularly and was one of the best pupils.

CASE 23 (EIGHTH GRADE)

Truancy

(3) Indifference due to truancy. The Milville School was noted for the good attendance of its pupils. Mr. Benson of the eighth grade had been especially anxious that his room should be the “banner room” in that respect. He often said to the pupils, “You know, boys and girls, that you are the highest grade. You are older than the other pupils and surely you should have the best record of any grade in town.”

One warm, dull, spring day, three of the eighth grade boys were absent. Mr. Benson’s inquiries as to their whereabouts failed to bring the desired information but as he was going home that night, one of the smaller boys confided to him, “I saw some of the big boys goin’ a-fishin’.”

The following day Mr. Benson requested the three boys to remain after school. They admitted the truth of the charge that they had played truant in order to go fishing, but promised not to offend again in this way if they could be excused for this once.

“Boys, I can not let this pass without a punishment,” said Mr. Benson. “Your offense is too serious. You not only have broken the regulations of the school but you are now behind in your lessons and, furthermore, you have lost for the grade the chance of being the ‘banner grade’ in attendance. I shall punish each of you severely.” Taking a rule from the desk he struck several severe blows upon the palm of each boy’s hand.

The boys never absented themselves from school again, but, on the other hand, their indifference toward their studies was even more marked than before.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Fishing

1. In dealing with such a case remember, first of all, that the liking which the boys have for fishing is not something wrong in itself. It will help to soften your own anger and disappointment in losing the “banner” for attendance, to picture to yourself the coolness and sweetness and lure of the woodsy stream which tempted the boys away.

2. Admit to yourself that the reason the boys went was because the woods and its game were vastly more interesting to them than the schoolroom. Then say to yourself, “Have I made the schoolroom work just as interesting as it is possible to make it? Would the boys have done this thing if I had joined in their sports on the playground, or if I had had a nature study lesson planned for that afternoon with some one of their animal pets as the subject of the study?”

3. Do not allow your personal feelings of disappointment to have an influence in determining the form and degree of punishment. Whipping a boy may relieve your own disappointment and indignation, but it does not cure the disease for which it is administered, namely, indifference or lack of interest toward the school work.

4. The regulations of towns, cities and states regarding what kind of punishments a teacher may or may not administer differ so much in different places that it is impossible to give a rule that can be followed in every case. Every teacher should inform himself as to the law in his particular state or city. But if there is no regulation to the contrary, the following course of treatment would doubtless be a more effective punishment than whipping, and at the same time leave less resentment in the minds of the pupils:

As soon as you are certain that the boys really went fishing write a note to each of the fathers of the three boys as follows:—“Dear Sir: I dismissed your son this morning for truancy from school. He may return if you will guarantee his satisfactory conduct from this time on.” Send these letters by mail, not by the boys.

The probability is that in a very short time the boys will return with the father, or with the father’s guarantee, and you will receive them on the same terms as before their offense. But meanwhile resolve to make good use of the principles of substitution and initiative in coöperation. If the boys may not be allowed to go fishing in school hours, try to have some part at least of the day’s work equally attractive. Share in the personal life of the boys on the schoolground and at home. Study to further their plans in all good things, and to coöperate with them whenever there is opportunity. Plan a fishing party for Saturday afternoon that all the boys can join in, and go with them. They will be the more ready to coöperate with you in enforcing regulations that are laid down for the good of all.

5. Boys in the eighth grade are old enough to understand and respond to the appeal of altruism or coöperation. Make very clear to the school in general talk some day how much the whole body suffers, (as in the loss of the “banner”) when one member allows his individualistic impulses to carry him too far.

ILLUSTRATION 1 (SEVENTH GRADE)

Goldfish

Rudolph was a mischievous, meddlesome boy. At least his teacher, Miss Green, thought so. He was forever bringing to school grasshoppers, toads, white mice, fish-worms and small snakes. He delighted in tormenting the little girls by parading his pets when Miss G. was not looking.

One day in geography class he drew from his pocket a toad, and sent it hopping down the aisle. The toad performed its feats gracefully and the children on both sides of the aisle watched it with keen interest, the boys leaning over in order to see it better, and the girls drawing their skirts around them and uttering little broken exclamations. Miss G., sitting at her desk, could not see the disturbing toad and corrected the children several times for making so much noise.

Then, at last, she saw the toad, and anticipating its source, told Rudolph to take the toad to his home.

In the meantime Miss G. had formulated a plan to outwit and interest Rudolph.

The next day at recess, Miss G. called Rudolph to her and said,

“Rudolph, I’m going to bring some goldfish to school and I want you to take care of them.”

Now this just suited Rudolph, for he had always admired the goldfish he had seen in the pond in Central Park and was anxious to have some to take care of himself. He was at school early next morning and fed the fish before school began.

For two weeks he daily changed the water on the fish and fed them every day. Then Miss G. passed the privilege of caring for the fish around the room, giving each pupil the care of the fish for one week. There was the ever-present interest of watching the growth of the fish, their frantic maneuvers when being fed, and their skillful swimming. There was also the admiration of the beautiful colorings of the fish—the pearl fish with its many gleams and shades, the goldfish with its gorgeous, flaming brilliancy, and the red fish with its darker tones, suggesting depths of beauty.

Then one day Miss Green realized that Rudolph was an obedient, orderly, altogether changed boy.

ILLUSTRATION 2 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Milk-Testing

The new superintendent had arrived in town and was lunching at the restaurant. A youth of fifteen was serving him.

“My name’s Joe Jones and they always say I can cause more trouble in school than most anybody else,” volunteered the lad behind the counter.

“Well, I guess we won’t have any trouble,” said the schoolman. “I am sure we can be friends at least.”

The superintendent’s inquires brought out the facts that Joe was working in the agricultural department and that his school record had not been the best. If something else interested him more than school, away he would go to that. He was afflicted with the “wanderlust” and apparently could not help himself at times. He did not always mean to transgress but his lack of self-control asserted itself now and then and off he would go.

As a result he would get behind in his school work and then lose interest. He was a bright, capable, good-hearted boy when he wanted to be. His home environment was poor so that he largely looked out for himself.

“Say, Joe, I have a problem here for you,” said the superintendent one day as Joe was returning from one of his periodical absences.

“Humph, no arithmetic in mine. Them problems are not in my line,” responded Joe with more enthusiasm than grammar.

“Oh, this problem isn’t in arithmetic, Joe, it’s a real live problem.”

Joe’s face brightened, for real live problems did interest him.

“What’s your problem, then,” said Joe with a great deal of curiosity.

Now Joe liked to work but he was not overfond of books. One thing connected with school he especially liked was milk-testing. He needed no books in this after he was once started.

“Well, Joe, these other boys here have no system of keeping a record of their tests and I want you to help them in the testing; keep a record of all the tests yourself, and show them how to keep a good record. Will you do it?”

“Guess I can,” returned Joe, taking charge of things at once as they reached the classroom.

For two months, during the testing, Joe was always on hand, the most enthusiastic fellow in the class. During this time, by occasional suggestions on the part of his teacher, he also kept up his regular work in good shape.

The testing over, however, Joe began to get back into his old habits.

About this time a new savings bank system was started in connection with the school. Each pupil must be provided with blanks whenever he might call for them.

“Joe,” said the teacher one day, “how would you like to take charge of giving out the blanks and keeping a record of them? Your work in keeping testing records was so good I want to give you first chance here.”

“Suits me all right,” said Joe, with a smiling face. “Guess I can do it, if anybody can.”

Joe’s new responsibility required him to be present every day. He became very much interested in his work and really did it remarkably well.

Thus, by a little praise and a little responsibility placed on Joe, he gradually became regular in his habits and later completed his school work. He is now a very successful business man.

3. Stubbornness

Stubbornness is closely related to temper, still what may subdue an ungovernable temper will not always pacify stubbornness. There are on record but few cases of stubbornness in which it did not result in some outbreak of ill-temper. Stubbornness is generally considered an inherited trait; it naturally gives rise to certain habits. These habitual states of mind and forms of conduct require treatment according to the principles of this Course, with due patience on the part of the disciplinarian, until a cure is effected. It may take several years of patient training. Then, too, the teacher must remember that she can deal with stubbornness in older pupils better than in first grade pupils. However, much valuable training can begin—and it is most imperative that this training should begin in the first grade.

The first step in dealing with a stubborn child is to learn what causes the child to become stubborn. Whatever it is that will provoke the child into stubbornness must be avoided by the teacher. The teacher must go further, she must arrange the child’s work and play and his associations with the other pupils as to avoid any and all causes for stubbornness. Could this plan be worked out perfectly, the child would have no occasion for becoming stubborn. After several months or a year of such close supervision, the trait would become weakened and the tendency to become stubborn would be less marked. It is a fact that any trait in an individual is strengthened by using it. The opposite also is true, that any trait in an individual will be weakened and finally die out if it is not used or exercised.

If the teacher were able to keep up a close supervision of the child she could hope to effect a complete cure; but with so many things in the schoolroom to occupy his attention, there will be times when the child will find a reason for being stubborn. Whenever that happens, the teacher must remember that to notice the stubbornness will only intensify it. Assuming that the pupil is in a recitation and the teacher calls upon him or asks a question and fails to get a response, the teacher should pass on the recitation to another pupil, paying no attention to the child. The chances are that he will respond in a very indifferent way. By no means should the teacher fail to accept it, nor should he make any adverse criticism upon it, even though the recitation may have been wrong. Instead the teacher should approve the effort. A winning smile and words to this effect will rock the child’s citadel of stubbornness. “That was good; I am glad you tried. Thank you.” The child may not be cured of stubbornness; however, by calling on him to recite, the teacher has taken a step in the right direction, she has done all she can under the circumstances; the child has responded, at least, with some little feeling of gratitude. This lays the basis for confidence and complete obedience.

At the close of the recitation, if busy work is to be assigned, the teacher should give it to each pupil, and the stubborn child, alike. If he does not respond, nothing should be said. No look or word of disapproval should be given by the teacher. A special trip to his seat and very kind assistance will get some work from him. This work should be approved. The child should now be left alone. Just as soon as he shows signs of coöperation, the teacher should talk in a friendly way, show some puzzle, or give some kind notice. This method will, as a rule, effect a check to stubbornness in any first grade pupil.

In addition the teacher may tell stories and give direct instructions against stubbornness, but the most emphatic caution is necessary. Such instruction must be given when the child is in his very best mood. The teacher must do such instructing in all kindness, never once hinting to the child that she is instructing in this way because of his stubbornness. This last method may be effective in some cases. Really it should be a last resort, and if possible it should not be used at all. The first two methods will effect prevention if consistently and persistently used. Do not whip a child for stubbornness. Such action may stop it for the time being, but whipping does nothing to remove the trait. Any kind of discipline that does not eradicate traits and habits, considered misdemeanors, is not discipline but cruelty. The kind of discipline that is corrective and worth while is that which is lasting: that which helps the child for all his life by aiding him to control himself.

CASE 24 (SIXTH GRADE)

Sulks

(1) Stubbornness due to an unwise parent. Olive Montgomery was an only and a spoiled child. She had a sunny temper usually, but there were times when her face was clouded, her brows contracted, her lips protruded and her whole attitude one of gloomy defiance. At such times her mother was wont to say, “When Olive looks like that, there’s no use to try to do anything with her. You just have to let her alone until she gets over it.” In spite of the fact that her mother unintentionally strengthened this trait she was outgrowing it somewhat, because of the daily association with other children.

When she was twelve years old there was one day on which she was especially tried.

She had attended a party the night before. Miss Rhodes, her teacher, had found fault with her for not knowing her lessons. She had borrowed Miriam Sharpe’s problems in arithmetic to copy and lost them. Miriam threatened her with exposure if she didn’t return the problems. She now borrowed Lucy Partridge’s problems and was expecting to stay in at recess and make one copy of them for herself and one for Miriam. She was angered at the thought of losing her recess, and moreover was tired and half ill.

When Miss Rhodes said, “Put your books in order,” Olive sat up but left her arithmetic open on her desk. This book she placed there to hide the fact that she had been copying and to give a pretense of original work. Miss Rhodes said, “Olive, put your books in order.” Olive began to pout and did not obey; when the others arose to pass out she remained in her seat. “Olive, you must go out and play with the rest,” said Miss Rhodes. Olive sat inactive, with a defiant look upon her face.

As Miss Rhodes started toward her she hastily concealed Lucy’s paper but settled more defiantly into her seat. Miss Rhodes now said, “Olive, don’t you hear me?” No answer. “Olive, I am talking to you,” in a sterner tone, “you must go out and play.” Still no response. “Olive, you must put your desk in order. If you don’t I’ll punish you.” Olive gave no sign of hearing this threat.

Miss Rhodes took from her desk a ruler and told Olive to put out her hand. Olive sat like a statue of gloom personified. Finally, Miss Rhodes seized her hand and struck the palm with the ruler. A few tears slid over Olive’s cheeks but that was the only visible effect of the stroke. Puzzled Miss Rhodes again struct her hand two sharp blows. Still Olive scarcely moved.

Anger showed plainly in the teacher’s voice and face. Brute force was going to settle the question of which was to be the winner. Miss Rhodes slammed the arithmetic into the desk; in doing so the lost arithmetic paper fell, name uppermost, at her feet. She was too blinded by anger to see it. She jerked Olive out of the seat and literally put her out of the room. She thought her duty was well done!

Olive felt greatly “insulted” by the treatment she had received. She used her influence to have Miss Rhodes dubbed “Miss Highway” when she seemed especially lofty to her pupils and “Miss Alley” when she reproved them. These nicknames were shortened to the deaf and dumb A and H and were soon signalled back and forth across the room by all the pupils. It was impossible for Miss Rhodes to build up confidence and a coöperative atmosphere in the face of this great obstacle.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Determine at once when some one fails to comply with a request made to all pupils at the same time whether the cause is inattention or rebellion.

As Olive’s case is one of rebellion let her alone until the others have left the room, then in a kindly manner find out the cause of her disobedience. If she refuses to talk, take no further notice of it at that time, being sure that the fault lies in part with yourself. While you are resting the case for the time being, review your attitude toward the child and plan with great care the right approach for the next interview.

The next day, at some moment when you are sure that Olive is her normal self again and no one is about you, talk frankly with her about her stubborn conduct.

Do not use the word “stubborn” or any accusing term in talking about it. Begin something like this: “Olive, yesterday at recess when you seemed not to hear me, I may have been at fault. I wanted more than anything else to help you over a hard day. Perhaps my manner or voice did not tell you that but I just wanted you to know how I really felt about it.”

COMMENTS

There seems to be no more frequent blunder in a teacher’s management of an insubordinate child than that of acting without foresight.

What diagnosis is, in medicine, analysis of a child’s thoughts and feelings is for the teacher.

This injunction can not be too often repeated since each instance of disobedience or other wrong action has unique features that require unique treatment.

Miss Rhodes gave not one moment to seeking a cause for Olive’s misbehavior; her attention was devoted wholly to getting the girl to “obey.”

By this neglect Miss Rhodes lost a good opportunity, and delayed a much needed reform. In this instance Olive showed a rebellious spirit. Her classmates had been carefully drilled so that nearly all of them pleasantly accepted the orderly methods of their teacher. They enjoyed having their desks in good order and liked the class exercises that involved rhythmic movements and team-work. There was left little opportunity for inattention or tendency toward it.

Having decided that the child is sulking there is nothing to be permanently gained for Olive by forcing her to obey. A rebellious mood is not dissipated by coercion; one must wait until the wave of resentment has passed. Unless physical danger or great disaster threatens, because of a retarded obedience, it is better to let the child alone until the rebellious feeling has passed away.

Novelty Cures Moodiness

The only alternative is to distract the mind by presenting objects of interest. No one, child or adult, is able to maintain moods of resentment, rebellion, or injured pride very long if he can be induced to attend closely to some neutral object.

One of the richest sources of information on the control of children is observation of children as they associate together. For example, children do not often parley long with a moody playmate. They leave her out of their plans; she soon begins drinking of the bitter dregs of isolation and abandons her unsocial attitudes.

The teacher has no need to fear that her control of other children who witness a stubborn child’s behavior will be threatened if she does not at the moment enforce obedience. They will understand that this child is simply being “left out of the game” until she gets ready to “play” again. If the teacher has not yet established confidence between herself and her pupils by use of methods of coöperation and feels forced to compel obedience at the moment, she must be absolutely sure that the child is given no cause for suspecting any antagonism whatever in the teacher’s attitude. The use of the ruler was wrong because it brought in the element of vengeance or reciprocal antagonism. If the stubborn child is constrained to fall into line with commands the forcing should be done in a happy, helpful spirit, so that the child may say to herself, “Miss Rhodes is helping me to do what I know I really should do.”

A word as to the interval that may elapse between an offense and the interview between teacher and pupil. As a rule it is best to confer with a pupil as soon after the misdeed as his mind is free from the peculiar feelings generated in the wrong act and when his thought is closely associated with it.

A delay of several days makes a review of the incident out-of-date, disagreeable and unduly antagonizes the pupil. He tends to forget the incident; its revival even under the best circumstances is an occasion of strain between pupil and teacher.

It is therefore an economy to settle the whole matter while it is of necessity fresh in the pupil’s mind and yet when his passions have cooled down. This will relieve the dread of all persons involved and will restore speedily the usual flow of personal relations.

The basis of Olive’s trouble was the oft-repeated word of her mother, “When Olive looks like that you can’t do anything with her.”

This has possessed her mind until, by prolonging her negative mood she has been able to create a considerable stir in the family life and to make a record to which no one else in the family has attained.

The school has a duty in killing this sort of impulse to win attention. The method of starvation will work the best cure. That is, if Olive receives no “credit” at school for her “excellence” in pouting, the desire to try for honors in this matter will finally vanish.

The teacher must find out this small fact and conduct her treatment as suggested, omitting allusions to “sulkiness,” “rebellion,” “stubbornness” so as to make room for positive and constructive suggestions.

A huge wave of good feeling and sympathetic interest from Miss Rhodes with suitable coöperative action will have the desired effect.

ILLUSTRATION (SIXTH GRADE)

The Cure

Dorothy Jones had been stubborn from babyhood. Her mother had very frequently said to her father: “Dorothy had one of her stubborn spells today. I can’t make her do a single thing when she takes one of these spells.” Her father would give a sly wink at Dorothy and reply, “O, she’ll outgrow it.”

The injured tone which her mother used when speaking of the matter gave Dorothy the opinion that her stubbornness was a good means of punishing her mother for putting her under too many restrictions and her father’s attitude caused her to believe that her conduct was a shrewd procedure.

When Dorothy started to school Mrs. Jones accompanied her and told her teacher that the child was dreadfully stubborn at times. True to her mother’s prophecy Dorothy was stubborn and this trait of hers was displayed to successive teachers until she reached the sixth grade.

Miss Schilling, her sixth grade teacher, decided to cure her. She secured the child’s friendship by giving her to understand that she knew Dorothy’s wishes and enjoyed granting them whenever possible. One cold day, however, Dorothy wished to go out to play without wraps. Miss Schilling asked her to put them on. She was out of sorts already because Neva Yoder had been chosen queen in a game called, “Queen of the May.” When Miss Schilling asked Dorothy to put on her sweater she stalked into the room and flung herself into her seat, pouting. The girls gathered round her and said, “O, come on Dorothy, come on Dorothy, hurry up, hurry up, let’s play.” Dorothy gave no heed except to cast a furtive glance at Miss Schilling to see how she was taking her punishment. What was her surprise to find that Miss Schilling was taking no notice whatever of her mood. Dorothy supposed that surely Miss Schilling had not noticed her, and resolved to make her do so. The girls soon tired of talking to her and ran out to play. She still sat there and pouted. Now and then she shuffled her feet or slightly coughed to attract Miss Schilling’s attention. And her wonder grew when her teacher only looked at her and smiled. She determined to make the desired impression: viz., that she had been wronged and was accordingly punishing her tormentor. So she kept her seat and pouted through the recess and into the next session. When her first class was called, she expected to match wills with Miss Schilling but to her surprise Miss Schilling simply said to the girls who glanced round to see if Dorothy was coming, “Please excuse Dorothy, she doesn’t wish to recite this time.”

Five minutes afterwards she stealthily took out a book and began to study. When her next class was called she was her usual self.

CASE 25 (EIGHTH GRADE)

Recitation

(2) Stubbornness due to fear. Miss Scott taught in the country at District No. 10. She was hearing a geography class recite when Mr. Blanden, a director, came to visit the school. Miss Scott was nervous herself and so the pupils were ill at ease.

“What’s the capital of Oklahoma?” she asked.

Susie Fry, who stood trembling ready to recite, couldn’t remember.

“What! Don’t you know that!” exclaimed Miss Scott. “Who does know?”

No hands went up. Everybody was embarrassed.

“It can’t be possible that none of you know that!” she said as she quickly pointed a threatening finger at Elmer and said, “What is the capital of Oklahoma?” All eyes turned toward Elmer. He instinctively slid down a little lower in his seat and said nothing.

“Elmer, stand up and recite,” said Miss Scott in a threatening tone. Elmer looked dogged and defiant but made no effort to stand. Miss Scott repeated her command. Elmer stubbornly remained silent. She then went to him and not very gently stood him on his feet and pushed him up beside her desk and went on with the recitation.

Greatly exasperated, she struggled on with the lesson and wondered at Elmer’s unusual stubbornness.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Do not unexpectedly spring questions upon a child. Ask the pupil to stand and then put your question. Do not suggest by your statements that nobody in the class knows the answer to your question. Strive to control your own fear or embarrassment in the presence of visitors. It will certainly prove contagious.

COMMENTS

Elmer was startled by Miss Scott’s sudden pouncing upon him and then, after having all eyes turned upon him, was either too embarrassed or too offended to reply. The more she urged the more embarrassed he became. Miss Scott not only startled Elmer into silence by her method, but prolonged it into stubbornness by her untactfulness. If a child seems to be unusually self-conscious he may need special gentleness.

ILLUSTRATION (UNGRADED SCHOOL)

Coaching

Miss Curtis, who taught in the country, had noticed that Rena Brewer was an especially self-conscious child and was very reluctant to recite, especially when she had to put work on the blackboard in the presence of all the pupils. So she asked her to come to school a little early in the morning. While she and Rena were alone together she gave her an arithmetic problem to put on the blackboard, commended the straight rows of numbers, pointed out the well-made figures and said, “Now, today I shall ask you to put this same problem on the board at recitation time. I’m sure you can do it well.”

A few morning drills like this gave Rena self-confidence and she worked with ease and pleasure in the presence of others.

4. Ill-Temper

Whether ill-temper is an inherited trait or not does not belong in this discussion. Nor is it worth while to explain just how a little temper may or may not be helpful. If the teacher can realize that some of the most dastardly acts and crimes committed were done in moments of ungoverned temper, then she will understand the necessity of controlling temper wherever and whenever its tendencies are displayed in any child.

(1) Ill-temper in the first year of school. It is true that outbursts of ill-temper often take place among first grade pupils, not necessarily because the teacher causes them but something a playmate may have said or done, or something about school work that may have gone wrong, causes temper to exhibit itself. It is, indeed, a disgusting trait and needs wise control.

CASE 26 (FIRST GRADE)

Busy Work

Elsie Johnson was the happiest girl in Camden, when her mother said to her one morning, “Elsie, mother is going to let you go to school this year along with sister Jane. Won’t that be fun?” It was indeed “fun” for Elsie Johnson. She liked the teacher, the other little girls, the wonderful action songs and the music, but best of all the “busy work.”

One day as a special treat Elsie’s teacher, Miss Wells, gave her a box of wooden kindergarten beads to string. All too soon the warning bell rang, notifying the children that it was time for school to close and work must be put away. But Elsie had just invented a new design. To lay aside her precious beads in the midst of working it out was the last thing she desired to do. “Elsie, put up your work now,” said the teacher. The nervous fingers only worked the faster.

“Put up your work, Elsie,” repeated the teacher. No response save a tighter clutch on the beloved beads. Miss Wells stepped up to the desk, took the string of beads forcibly, and not very gently, out of Elsie’s hands, and was just reaching for the box containing the unstrung beads, with the intention of putting them away for the night, when Elsie suddenly stamped her foot in a rage, threw the box on the floor, the beads rolling in all directions, and burst into a violent fit of weeping.

“Why, Elsie Johnson! What a naughty, naughty girl!” said Miss Wells. She dismissed the other children, then, taking hold of Elsie’s arm, she lifted her quickly out of her seat, partly carried, partly dragged her to the wardrobe, and forcibly put on Elsie’s wraps. When Jane came to take her sister home, Miss Wells pointed to the beads still lying on the floor and said, “Tell your mother, Jane, that Elsie has been a bad, bad girl today. She did not mind when told to put away her work; she threw the beads on the floor, then kicked, cried and stamped her feet when I told her to put on her wraps. I am very, very much ashamed of her.”

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

In such a case as this, use the principles of expectancy and suggestion. Say, “Elsie, it’s time to go home now. We’re all going; everybody is waiting on us.”

Generally, the sight of all the other children with folded arms, and position of waiting for dismissal, will lead the child, through imitation, to take the same position; but if Elsie continues to work in spite of this, step to the desk and say, “Let me see the pretty thing you have made.” Elsie will probably reach it toward you. You will admire it and approve her good work and then say, “I will let you play with the beads tomorrow. Hand me the box.” (Hold out your hand at the same time as a further definite suggestion.) “Tell mother when you get home what a nice time you had with them today.”

The moment’s conversation, your suggestion of the pleasure awaiting Elsie on the morrow and the substituted pleasure of “telling mother” will lead Elsie to place the beads cheerfully in your hands and to assume the position which she sees the other children to be in as they wait to be dismissed.

Imagination can often be used by the teacher with the greatest advantage in dealing with children of this age. For example, in the present case, the teacher might have said to Elsie (who delights in brownie and fairy stories), “Your little (bead) brownies have played a long time with you. They are tired now. Let’s put them all to bed so they can rest and be ready to play with you again tomorrow. We’ll have to get them to bed quickly, for the little children are getting tired too.”

Generally speaking the teacher should so closely supervise all his school work and play and recreation that there will be no chance for the pupil to be irritated or provoked into an outburst of ungovernable temper. The teacher who can succeed in doing this will need no further advice on remedying the annoyance, as he will not be annoyed.

However, in an unguarded moment even with the best of care, a pupil may have his temper upset. The teacher must remember that his pupil is but a child, nearly a baby, and by kindness can easily be governed. A few kind words and a sympathetic suggestion about something that will divert the child’s mind from that which provokes, will effect a remedy. For example, the teacher can say, “Just wait a minute, I will get you something you never saw before.” This will arouse the childish curiosity and, while the teacher is getting the something, will tend to allay the child’s temper. The teacher who is discreet always has a curious “something” to get. What is there to prevent him from having in a box on his desk the first book he ever had, the little book he read in the first day he went to school, the first picture he ever drew, a curious bird’s nest, or a score of other articles that will capture the attention of any child, regardless of whether he is indifferent, lazy, slow, stubborn or in a “fit of temper.” Each time the child exhibits ill-temper, the teacher can pursue some method similar to those indicated above. In a comparatively short time, he will be cured of his exhibitions of temper.

Never snatch anything from a child nor take it from him forcibly if it can be avoided. Even an adult would resent this manner of treatment. Do not make the mistake of supposing that “obedience” and “yielding to force” are synonymous terms.

Try to put yourself in the child’s place and discover the instinct underlying the act. Then you will be able to utilize and satisfy the instinct even while checking the undesirable specific act.

COMMENTS

Miss Wells’ first mistake was in dealing too abruptly with Elsie. Elsie’s failure to respond to her teacher’s signal was not due in the slightest degree to disrespect for her teacher, but rather to intense absorption in her work. She was thinking out a design and it irritated her to be disturbed, just as it irritates her teacher to be disturbed while planning a Christmas program, or while reading the most interesting chapter of an exciting novel. But there was this difference between Elsie and her teacher. While the latter understood the necessity for interruptions, and immediately though reluctantly, responded to them when necessity required it, Elsie had not yet reached the age when she could understand why she might not go on as long as she desired. Bells and signals meant no more to her than an arbitrary desire on the teacher’s part to interfere with something Elsie desired to do. Until a habit of acting in response to given signals is formed, first grade children will need to be told repeatedly the meaning of the signal.

While it was necessary in this instance that Elsie should lay aside her work, yet the value of the individualistic instinct that impelled Elsie to stick to her work until it was accomplished should be fully recognized by the teacher, not regarded by her as something evil, in itself, or as “pure obstinacy.”

ILLUSTRATION (FIRST GRADE)

Snatching Pencils

Miss Donaldson, a first grade teacher in Davenport, was one day conducting a nature study lesson, in which the children were dramatizing the care of the parent birds for the little ones. Five children had cuddled into the corner to represent the little birds in the nest and two others were industriously bringing food to put into their open mouths, when one of the boys who was supposed to be watching the performance, snatched a pencil out of the hands of his nearest neighbor, Charles Drew. Charles, with fists upraised, was just about to administer summary punishment upon the offender, when the teacher glanced up, and immediately taking in the situation said,

“Oh, boys! The little birds are going to fly away in just a minute, and you won’t see where they go to.”

Instantly the attention of both boys was riveted on the little birds. Suggestion had averted a catastrophe.

5. Disrespect for the Teacher

The old idea that there must be enmity between teacher and pupils is of course everywhere admitted to be wrong. Yet a surprisingly large number of teachers show by both their words and actions that there still lingers the thought that if only there is sufficient silence and obedience in the schoolroom to allow the maximum amount of work to be done the spirit of mutual trust is of minor importance. While modern teachers realize the absurdity of Pete Jones’ motto, “No lickin’, no larnin’,” many are slow to admit that there is no necessity for a show of authority, for its own sake.

The teacher who talks of “breaking a child’s will” is the one who is in danger of suffering from disrespect paid him by his pupils.

In one of our States foremost in education, a minister, who is a member of the board of education governing his village school made a speech at the beginning of the school year. He emphasized the thought that the pupils must behave, that the school board would back up the teachers in the matter of keeping order. His speech left the feeling on the part of the pupils that they were expected to lose in the combat between teachers and pupils, but that there must be a continued combat there was no question.

It is in localities where this old idea of enmity between the teacher and the pupils still exists that we may expect to find real disrespect for the teacher manifested.

Seeming disrespect may often be only the result of ignorance of good manners and forms.

The boy, who wears his hat in the schoolroom, sits while his teacher stands to converse with him at recess, says, “Teacher,” when he addresses his instructor, and talks slang even in his recitations, may have no idea that he is showing disrespect to anyone. He may have never been taught on these subjects. According to the old “punishment method” the teacher must wait for a specific “punishable” offense to occur before discipline begins. According to the method laid down in this book one is able to deal with an “atmosphere” of disobedience, and by applying the five principles previously cited, to forestall the overt act with all its undesirable results to both pupil and teacher.

(1) Disrespect due to oversensitiveness of the teachers. Teachers sometimes encourage disrespect on the part of the pupils, merely by being constantly on the lookout for it. Their attitude of suspicion is itself a suggestion to do something that will justify the teacher’s expectation.

CASE 27 (SECOND GRADE)

Familiarity

Miss Grace Eddy was a second grade teacher in Randolph, Vermont. It was her first term and she so feared to be known as “a teacher who can’t keep order” that she felt obliged to be always on the alert against any appearance of evil. The school was working on the Christmas exercises which were to be given a few days later. Full of the thought of Christmas, one of the children wrote on the blackboard one day, “A Merry Christmas to Grace Eddy.” As Miss Eddy came back from dinner she spied the sentence on the board and resenting a little the familiar use of her name, said, “Who wrote that?” The roguish face of Roland Churchill looked up into hers and Roland answered, “I did.” “Rub it off,” said Miss Eddy, severely. Unconscious of having done anything wrong and feeling rebuffed by the severe tone, Roland turned and ran out of the schoolroom. Miss Eddy not wishing to have the other children notice the writing, erased the sentence herself and said to Roland later, “Roland, you may stay in at recess, this afternoon.”

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Assume that the written sentence on the board was prompted by a genuine wish of the writer. Say to the children, “Who wrote for me such a pretty wish as that?” When Roland answers, “I did,” pick up the chalk and write directly under his sentence, “Thank you, Roland Churchill.”

Your smile and your coöperation will stimulate his good wishes, and will bring about his coöperation with you in the afternoon’s tasks.

COMMENTS

Never harbor the thought that every unconventional thing done by little children is done “for meanness.” “We see what we look for,” hence it is better to look for good than for evil.

(2) Smartness. Smartness may be the result of conceit or love of fun or desire for approval of playmates, or may be simply ignorance of polite manners.

CASE 28 (THIRD GRADE)

Personal Remarks

Miss McPheag was the teacher, red-haired and not to be imposed upon. George Ray, also red-haired, was in her third grade. Seeing him the center of a giggling circle one cold January day, Miss McPheag thought mischief might be brewing, and kept a weather eye upon the group. Suddenly, George raised his voice and called out,

“Say, Teacher, is your name Miss McFig or Miss McPig?” Quick as a flash Miss McPheag answered, “It’s Miss McPheag, and if I ever hear you call me anything else you’ll not know your own name when I catch you.”

This retort came with such energy that it awed George and all his classmates. They never called her anything but her right name so long as they were in the schoolhouse; but one afternoon, late in the year, Miss McPheag found this couplet penciled on a fence near the schoolhouse;

“Miss McPhig,

She ain’t so big.”

It hurt her, for she knew the spirit that prompted the silly jingle. She did not realize that she had signally failed to measure up to a great opportunity to replace the manners of smartness and pertness with those of respect and consideration.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Never meet pertness and flippancy with the same spirit. A fallacious idea exists that evil must always be met in kind. This is not true. Miss McPheag should have looked at George in steady silence for a few seconds, and then quietly engaged him and his companions in some entirely new activity that would draw their attention from the incident. Later, she should have talked to him alone, kindly and with dignified impersonality, upon his breach of good manners.

COMMENTS

The smartness would never have occurred to George if the children, forced to stay within doors by the cold, had been engaged in some healthy play under the teacher’s supervision. Here again preventive measures are better than remedial ones; let them be effective and constructive, not such as merely fix the fault by giving it an imitative reinforcement.

ILLUSTRATION (UNGRADED SCHOOL)

Conceit

Conquering pertness and conceit by an opposite spirit was practiced by Fannie Fleming, who taught the district school on the upper Gila River, New Mexico. She had Joe Rogers, a son of a Texas renegade, for a pupil. He ranged over the whole program of studies and, backed by his father, made himself independent of several regulations in the school.

“I don’t believe you know very much about how they grow rice. You never was in Texas, was you?” said Joe one day in geography class. “I know,” he continued, “I was born in Texas. I seen ’em raise rice.”

This outburst was not surprising in view of the pert attitudes and assumptions Joe frequently displayed.

Miss Fleming looked straight into Joe’s eyes and let her countenance show sternness without resentment, as she said, “Joe, I want to ask you some questions so that you may tell the class all you know about the rice culture.” She soon exhausted his resources and then continued,

“Well, I’ll help you out a little, Joe. You did very well, but there’s more to say.”

She found Joe sinking away somewhat as she told one thing after another which was new to him. This gave her a clue. Miss Fleming made it a point to meet him on every issue by drawing out all his information until he lay helpless, though uninjured, upon the dry land of his own ignorance. Then she helped him. There was no ridicule, no faultfinding, no scorn in manner or in voice, but an unrelenting exhaustion on every possible occasion.

Joe recovered. He found that he could learn many new and interesting facts from his teacher. Her unfailing politeness and uniform kindliness toward him finally taught him good manners.

(3) Laughing in school. Occasionally a teacher goes too far in trying to meet the pupils half way.

CASE 29 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Teacher Laughs

Mrs. Jewett taught in the Carthage High School. In order to get the good-will of the pupils she feigned to understand them and tried to take part in whatever affected them as a body, especially in the matter of laughing. Whenever the pupils laughed she laughed with them no matter whether she knew what caused the levity or not. As soon as the pupils discovered this they laughed on purpose to make her laugh and she lost their respect.

What would you do if you were elected to follow Mrs. Jewett the next year?

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Laugh with the pupils when something unavoidably funny occurs; as, for example, when a bird flying through an open window whizzes past a young man at work at the blackboard, causing him to jump and make a wavy line through his carefully drawn geometrical figure.

But be on the alert to discover mischief while it is being planned and assign some interesting work in another direction.

Let it become a settled opinion of the pupils that you laugh when you see a really good joke but that you do not laugh unless you see something to laugh at.

COMMENTS

Pupils admire genuineness. Mrs. Jewett was too apparently currying favor by laughing with her pupils on all occasions.

A wide-awake teacher can detect a situation of unrest and lack of application to the subject in hand. This condition, which will ripen into misbehavior, can be turned into the atmosphere of industry by giving an interesting task to the leader or leaders in idleness.

ILLUSTRATION (HIGH SCHOOL)

Miss Horner, who was keeping order in the assembly room of a high school, saw a girl making a form resembling a frog out of her handkerchief while a boy who sat near was watching her intently.

Pupils Laugh

Miss Horner went to the girl and said, “I want some one, who can do it well, to tell the story found on page 79 of ——’s Ancient History when we recite today. You may go now to the book shelves and get the history.” With a smile she continued, “I’ll tell you just when I want the story told.”

The “frog” was forgotten, and the boy half suspected that Miss Horner understood the entire situation and knew how to manage it.

(4) Talking back. One of the greatest annoyances of the teacher’s life is the pupil who talks back.

CASE 30 (FOURTH GRADE)

“Board Work”

“Edmund, you may come to the front board for your arithmetic,” said Mr. Spangler as he assigned places to his class of fifteen. Edmund had been in school just long enough to decide where he might begin to test out the new teacher.

“It’s dark up there. I’d rather go here by the window.”

“It’s not too dark for good work up here. Come up at once.”

Edmund did not feel the force of this urgency. So he loitered along looking this way and that. His teacher hastened over to him and said,

“See here, young man, I don’t want to wait so long for you.”

“But I don’t want to go up front. I want to work here.”

“Edmund, no more back-talk if you please. You’ve said too much already.”

“You don’t make the other big boys go up front.”

This was too much for the patience of Mr. Spangler, so, quick as a flash up flew his hand and struck Edmund a smart blow on the side of the head. In a moment the boy’s nose began to bleed a trifle. This did not last for long and the battle reopened as soon as the crying was hushed up.

“Will you go up to the board now as I told you to?” was the next thing for the worried teacher to say.

Edmund drew back a little as he said, “I don’t feel like it now. I’d rather stay down here.”

After this long parley, Mr. Spangler did the act heroic, seizing Edmund by the right arm, he dragged him by successive jerks to his desk and in the presence of the school gave him a sound whipping. Then he shoved him to his place at the blackboard. Of course school work was sadly interrupted. The success of the teacher’s method may be inferred from the fact that at the end of three days essentially the same performance was repeated almost literally.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Just the moment a spirit of back-talk is observed cease all ordinary conversation with the child. Use signs almost wholly to indicate your wishes and back them up with a demeanor and general program that checks all opportunity for a spectacular prank. Dismiss the pupils for recess or assign some duty that engages all the other pupils while you deal with the insurgent pupil alone. Immediate action is necessary, even if it is nothing more than to excuse the pupil from any further school work for the time being.

Treat the pupil who talks back as you would an invalid to be cured rather than as a criminal to be paid back, thus laying aside all evidence of hostility or displeasure; assume that his disability necessitates separation from the others. Use pleasant conversation as a means of establishing his confidence in you.

COMMENTS

The teacher fell into a trap when he forbade Edmund to indulge in back-talk. This attention to a new offense is just the thing a disrespectful pupil rejoices in. The attempt to deal with two offenses at once is too hazardous.

ILLUSTRATION (SIXTH GRADE)

Country Boy

When LeRoy Fennimore came back from the west he found himself in a novel situation because, in the Pennsylvania village, manners were more cultured than he had ever been taught in the little mountain home in Dead Man’s Gulch.

“LeRoy, will you bring us the United States map from the hall, please?” came as the first request from his new teacher. “Nope, I don’t know anything about your maps here,” was the blunt reply of the twelve-year-old boy, staring boldly into the eyes of his teacher.

“Why, LeRoy, I’m sorry to have surprised you with something too hard for you.”

“No surprise on me. Only I don’t know nothing about maps.”

“Well, we’ll drop the matter this time. Next time, perhaps, you can get it for me,” was the good-natured remark of the teacher.

“Don’t ’spect you can get me to do much. I tell you I don’t know your ways of doing things here yet.” continued the irrepressible boy.

Miss Faust bit her lips for a moment, under the conviction that she had a new problem on her hands. LeRoy exhibited some ignorance of the suitable words for the occasion, a little spunk, more laziness of attitude due to association with cattle-men and miners.

Miss Faust cautiously watched LeRoy at the close of school. She helped him find his lost cap and began a systematic plan of cultivating his friendship. At her request he brought many interesting relics and curios from home, she showed cheerfully on the map where he had lived some two thousand miles distant. He continued his rough manners, but all the disagreeable spirit vanished, as the two became good friends.

Occasionally, Miss Faust gave him some little hints on good manners. He listened with bashful interest and in his crude way warmed up to her kindly sympathy.

Not long after she asked LeRoy to bring her a box of chalk from the store-room, but this time she immediately added, “Timothy (picking one of the smallest boys), will you show LeRoy where the chalk is kept?” LeRoy immediately responded and presented the box to Miss Faust, with an air of satisfaction.

CASE 31 (SEVENTH GRADE)

Pertness

(5) Talking back for approval of mates. Sometimes it is not the dominant sentiment of a social unit, but the opinion and wishes of an individual, according to which a wrong-doer shapes his deeds. In a certain seventh grade in Ohio there was a little girl who possessed one of these shy and cat-like natures which delight in making mischief but seemed always to escape the consequences. She was pretty and had a wonderful adaptability of manner. Dear old ladies said she was a sweet and ladylike little thing, and the roughest boys in school pronounced her a good fellow. She was essentially neither of these, but she was always a good actress. Her name was Bernice Storrs.

One day Miss Coffee, the teacher, said to her class in geography, “Now we’ll close our books and see how many of the products of South America we can remember.”

“We don’t have to close our books to find that out, do we?” inquired Horace Selfridge pertly.

“We certainly do! Close your book at once!” Miss Coffee was a disciplinarian of the old school, and she bristled at this insubordination. Horace’s book remained open.

“If we don’t look at them it’s the same thing, isn’t it?” he said.

“Horace Selfridge! What do you mean?”

“Nothing. Just what I said.”

“You are very impudent. You may go up to Miss Bell’s office.”

“I won’t do anything of the kind. I asked you a civil question, and you ought to give me a civil answer.”

This undignified dialogue continued until the outraged Miss Coffee sent for the principal. When Miss Bell came in, she found a tractable, courteous and somewhat triumphant boy and a much flustered teacher. Horace was given a punishment which he endured with admirable fortitude; and, thereafter, Miss Coffee had trouble with him once in a while, for he had learned that she could be worried and he loved to do it.

Now the inside history of Horace’s impudence was that Bernice Storrs was using him as a means of amusement. Impeccable in her own school behavior, she had skilfully suggested to Horace what a hero he would be if only he could make the teacher “mad” and defy her authority. To stand in Bernice’s graces, Horace thought up the spectacular defiance that so stirred up Miss Coffee; and to stand in her graces, Horace repeatedly made trouble during the year.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

If Miss Coffee had lived nearer her pupils she would have known the source of Horace’s impudence. She might have known that a boy, formerly tractable and courteous, would not change utterly without some strong stimulus.

In such a case, never argue with pupils.

When Horace made his first pert inquiry, a tactful teacher would have looked very surprised, then perhaps have inquired if he were well, and so surprised him into a normal response; or engaged him in lively conversation upon an entirely different topic; or, in case he would not be diverted, have declined to talk with him at all, thus giving him nothing to answer.

ILLUSTRATION (EIGHTH GRADE)

Punning

Frank Tyne, son of the richest merchant in N——, well-dressed, quick of thought and spoiled at home, was in the habit of eliciting little admiring giggles from the girls in his classes by making pert responses and unnecessary comments when his teachers spoke. So many teachers had endured this, fearing the parental influence, that Frank did it almost unconsciously, although he was very conscious of being considered “cute” by the girls. One day a new teacher, Miss Stone, announced that as the day was dark, and there were no lights in the room, the writing lesson would be omitted.

“Yes’m,” said Frank as he put away his copybook. “Light work for a dark day, eh?”

Miss Stone tactfully used the following method: when her pupils giggled, she seemed very unconcerned, she did not slam her book down or do anything to indicate that she was annoyed in the least, but rather calmly and slowly turned her face toward Frank and softly smiled. This smile was not one which indicated that she was amused, but rather one which showed clearly that her temper was not aroused. After looking at Frank only a second or two she calmly directed the attention of her class to an announcement which she had intended to make sometime during the day, and which served her purpose of taking the attention entirely away from Frank by directing it elsewhere.

Miss Stone next made an attempt to win Frank’s confidence which she easily did by talking at recess about those things in which she knew he was especially interested. She made it a point to ask him to do a few little errands for her, errands which she knew he would like to do, and after each one she took advantage of the occasion to establish a good spirit by thanking him in this fashion: “Oh, Frank, you are so kind. Thank you, ever so much.”

After thus gaining his confidence, one day after she had been talking to him in a friendly manner, she said to him in a confidential way, “There is another thing I wanted to speak to you about. I didn’t want to say anything about this in front of any of the other pupils, so I thought I would tell you now. Whenever anything comes up that’s funny or whenever you think of anything funny, remember to keep it till after school hours. I like to see people have fun and I like fun myself, but of course we have to watch ourselves during school hours. I’d like to allow you to talk, but if I would do that, I’d have to allow everyone else to, so if you will remember this, I will appreciate it very much.”

Miss Stone by this method very soon succeeded in breaking Frank, not only of his habit of talking in school, but of other annoying habits as well.

(6) Talking back to teacher. Talking back is generally due to the fact that the pupil has not been taught politeness at home; but the case is frequently aggravated by an exhibition of the same sort of bad manners on the teacher’s part.

CASE 32 (FOURTH GRADE)

Pulling Hair

Miss Eastman, a teacher of the fourth grade in a small town in Minnesota, was driven to her wit’s end when Benjamin McCloy repeatedly refused to stop pulling the hair of the little girl who sat in front of him.

“I guess this is the only thing that will do you any good, Benjamin McCloy,” she said, as she drew a ruler from her desk drawer. “March right up here to the front of the room. Aren’t you ashamed of yourself?”

At the question, Benjamin bristled up to his full four feet, two inches. “No, I’m not ashamed. She needn’t think I’m going to have hair all over my desk,” thought Benjamin as he went up to take his beating like a man.

Miss Eastman seemed to make no impression upon him with the ruler. Finally it broke in two.

“Loyd,” she addressed a boy in the room who never was known to do anything wrong. “Take this money and go over to the little store and buy me another ruler.”

“Gee! That’ll break you up,” came a muffled response from a ringleader in the room.

“Well, that’s nothing out of your pocket, is it?” Miss Eastman remarked with ill-concealed temper.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

When the complaint has been made by the girl, ask Benjamin to take the seat back of James for the present, saying, “No, you need not move your books, yet.” After the session make it a point to interview the boy.

“Benjamin, is there some reason why you pull Marjorie’s hair?”

“It is always in my way when I write.”

“I thought there must be some good reason. You would not act that way unless you had a cause. There is a vacant seat, Benjamin, back of James in row 1. You may change your books right now. You will not be troubled there.”

Another course to pursue would be the following:

Change Seat

“Miss Eastman, Benjamin keeps pulling my hair.” “Benjamin, I believe you will not be bothered, (inferring that he is), if you will take the seat back of James for the morning.”

Benjamin slowly obeys your command—

“Thank you. As I was saying, this map shows the Mississippi valley. James will you please step up to the map and point out the source of the river?”

COMMENTS

Had Miss Eastman analyzed the situation before resorting to bodily punishment, she might have found a better solution of her problem. In this case, the boy’s action was founded on a legitimate cause of irritation. It was Miss Eastman’s place to find out this cause and remedy the matter at once.

But supposing the act had been committed for sheer meanness. It would have been better, even so, to have changed the boy’s seat immediately, without stressing the reason for doing so.

The fact that a boy in Miss Eastman’s room would feel free to make the statement, “Gee! that’ll break you up,” was an index to the general attitude of the pupils. Her answer to the boy’s remark was excuse in itself for further talking back on their part.

Do not expect to cure rudeness with more rudeness.

(7) Impudent replies. Impudence is a form of disrespect which is hard to deal with from the fact that it seems to be a definite personal attack upon the teacher with a set purpose to belittle her opinions. Because of its clearly understood purpose it is likely to anger the teacher. This direct attack upon her authority as a scholar or disciplinarian does not appear where the teacher has used correct methods in accordance with the principle of initiative in coöperation.

CASE 33 (FOURTH GRADE)

Miss Willets, a young teacher of the fourth grade in an Oklahoma school, was working at her desk one Monday morning, when just before the last bell rang for the beginning of the morning session, one of her smartest boys burst into the room, now full of children, and said in a spirit of jest, “Miss Willets, how many chocolates did you eat last night?” Not a word came to her aid to carry her over this embarrassing situation; what was even worse, she could feel her cheeks flush as she recalled the steady company entertained by her on the previous evening. The children caught the spirit of the question, and when the bell rang, the room was in an uproar.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

If a question is asked before the school session by a pupil in a joking way, even though it has caused you some embarrassment, enter into the spirit of fun and laugh as you give some witty reply.

But supposing the question to be asked during the school session for the purpose of causing you embarrassment, ignore the question altogether.

COMMENTS

Miss Willets made a mistake by taking the boy’s question too seriously. She would have saved embarrassment, if she had taken his question as a joke and replied accordingly. Humor often lessens the tension in the schoolroom, and where indulged in by the teacher, puts her into easier relationship with her pupils.

ILLUSTRATION (FIFTH GRADE)

“Steady Company”

Miss Snow was talking to the children one noon about the moving pictures which were to be exhibited in the neighboring church on the following evening. “Can we go, Miss Snow?” asked the children.

“Those children can go whose parents accompany them,” was the reply.

“Humph,” remarked an overgrown girl. “Do your parents go along with you?”

“O, Gordy takes her,” spoke up one of the older boys. Miss Snow looked up just long enough to give the faintest little smile and then went on with her conversation as though it had not been interrupted.

The big boy thought he “was going to have some fun with the teacher,” but the results of his effort were so meagre that he was not encouraged to try again.

CASE 34 (SIXTH GRADE)

(8) Impudent replies due to father’s example.

Imitative

Tim Murphy was an Irish lad twelve years old. He was accustomed to rough speech at home. His mother was not living and his father was a section boss on the railroad. Mr. Murphy was accustomed to review the events of the day for the benefit of Tim and his older brothers and sisters. Thus, Tim came to believe that to be saucy and impudent was manly, for surely it was by his rough speeches that his father managed his men and held his job. Furthermore his father’s account of how he outwitted his men who talked back was highly entertaining. Without forming a definite resolution to have an exciting quarrel with Miss Deering, Tim was in every sense ready for such a combat.

Miss Deering had a feeling that Tim was not exactly respectful and yet the little pursings of his lips, the raising of his brows, and tiltings of his chin when Miss Deering spoke to him were signs of disrespect too slight to punish. She was annoyed, yes, even angered by them but she felt helpless as to how to manage Tim. She feared her control of him was lessening. Frankly, she thoroughly disliked him. Many an evening her thoughts reverted to the ever disquieting act of Tim’s attitude and she almost wished for an outbreak of such dimensions as to warrant her giving him a sound whipping. She too was prepared for a conflict.

Tim’s strong point was arithmetic. One of the problems on a certain Friday was: “A and B work together for 5 days and receive $25 and then A works on alone 2 days for $4 more; how much does each receive?” This problem was assigned to Delia Carrigan, one of the dullest in the class, to be placed on the blackboard while each of the others were assigned other problems. When Delia’s turn came to explain her problem, it was found that she had divided the $25 equally between A and B and added $4 to A’s half of it. Miss Deering did not notice the mistake. When Delia had finished her explanation Tim said,

“That ain’t right.”

Miss Deering said a little louder, “Next.”

“Delia didn’t do that right,” Tim said again.

“Tim, be quiet. Go on, Julia,” said Miss Deering, her look at Tim expressing dislike as well as determination.

Tim answered that look by a roused temper; visibly he squared his shoulders and clenched his hands, unconsciously falling into his father’s mode of expression. “Ye’re wrong, Oi say, an ye’re a green un not to know it, Oi tell ye to yer face yer no gud, and Oi won’t kape quiet, begorrah!”

Her hour had come. Miss Deering felt perfectly justified in seizing the pointer and beating Tim. He fought for a moment but she was taller and stronger. Anger added to her strength. She broke the pointer, seized the largest piece and used it till it, too, gave way.

Tim was now sniffling, more choked by anger than reduced to tears through pain.

“Now will you be quiet?” panted Miss Deering.

“Faith an Oi will not,” said Tim.

Glancing about she saw a book strap on her desk. She jerked Tim a step at a time toward her desk. Arriving there she belabored him with the strap till she was tired. Then she sent him to his seat and went on with her work. Every time her glance happened to meet Tim’s, the eyes of each expressed their mutual hatred. During the days and weeks that followed Miss Deering would plainly show her dislike for Tim every time she addressed him. He did not really talk back again but his insolent attitude was expressed in various ways which they both understood. Had she heard Tim talking about her when out of her hearing she would have better understood why so many of the pupils showed signs of resentment toward her commands.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

As soon as you detect that any child dislikes you make it your study to find out the reason, then if possible adjust matters so as to win his confidence. If you can not conscientiously change your own attitude, show him your interest in him by giving him something he would like to have; some material gift or social pleasure. By wisely selected story and studied comradeship assure him that you are able to satisfy his wants along study and recreation lines.

If unexpectedly a pupil questions your knowledge in any line, say, “Wait, let’s see about that.” If information on the subject can be had at once, seek it immediately. If the facts can not be verified immediately report it. Assume that the pupil who raises a question as to your correctness of statement is seriously studying the point and that his criticism is entirely impersonal. Treat him as you would a friend who differs from you.

COMMENTS

You can do very little toward helping an antagonistic child. You wish, however, to benefit every child under your care. Then your duty is to have every child look upon you as his friend. In giving him something he likes, you are not buying him: Not at all. You are simply letting him get a glimpse of yourself. You are telling him in a way that he can understand that his pleasure is your joy.

Assume that no child is calling your statements into question simply to tease you. You can not err in doing this, whereas, you may seriously commit an error by supposing that you were questioned merely to display impudence. Treating a boy as if he were “on the square” often causes him to be so. Just as surely treating him as if he were a rogue makes a rogue of him. If you treat an innocent boy as if he were a culprit he has nothing to lose, so far as your influence goes, by actually being one.

ILLUSTRATION (SIXTH GRADE)

Familiarity

Nina Blair had taken a course at the Illinois State Normal and had returned home where she had charge of the sixth grade room. Thirteen-year-old Wesley Hail, whose parents were friends of the Blair family, stayed at Blair’s where he helped in the store evenings and Saturdays and went to school to Nina. Being an old acquaintance and seeing Nina at home daily he grew to feel very free to express himself in her presence. She noticed that at school he frequently gave his opinions unasked. He was especially interested in history.

One day he frankly said he thought Miss Blair wrong in her statement about Grant’s campaign. Miss Blair said, “I am glad to see so much interest manifested in this lesson. Mamie, please find out about this and bring in a report tomorrow. Has anyone else a point he would like to have further discussed?” No one had.

One evening soon after this Miss Blair found Wesley alone at home. She said, “Father says you are a great help to him in the store. He especially likes the carefulness with which you take orders. I, too, foresee that you will be of great help to your classmates.” She then told him that just as he needed courtesy in the store he would find it a necessity throughout life and that his example in this respect had a great influence upon the other boys. As a result of this treatment Wesley cultivated amiability and soon came to realize its universal value.

(9) Impudence due to conceit of pupil. It is difficult to see how conceit can be cured by whipping. Such a punishment may silence but it does not convince. “The man convinced against his will, is of the same opinion still.” Silencing instead of convincing may induce still greater evils on the pupil’s part.

CASE 35 (EIGHTH GRADE)

Disputing

Miss Garber was hearing her eighth grade arithmetic class. When it came Grant Langston’s turn to recite she told him that his problem was wrong.

“No, it isn’t, it’s right,” said the boy.

Now this boy had been showing a spirit of independence and indifference to Miss Garber’s authority. This outbreak gave her the occasion she had been waiting for to punish him. She used the county superintendent’s prescribed instrument (a piece of rubber hose) and gave the boy one hundred eight strokes with it, and asked him if he wanted another whipping soon. Grant signified that the punishment was sufficient to be effective and was allowed to go out to play.

While at play he told the boys that Miss Garber didn’t hurt him. Somebody told Miss Garber what he said and so in the presence of the whole room she said:

“Grant, you told me that the whipping I gave you this morning hurt and you told the boys that it didn’t; to whom did you tell a falsehood?”

“To the boys,” answered Grant.

This confession was accepted as an apology and nothing done about the telling of the falsehood. On the way home from school Grant again told the boys that the whipping didn’t really hurt him.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

When you first discover that there is a spirit of opposition to you in a pupil begin at once to establish right relations. The pupil who is thus unruly has lost confidence in you as his dependable guide. Without this confidence your work with him is handicapped. Secure this confidence by studying his case, finding out his special needs—perhaps a book of adventures to read, a start in studying birds, opportunity to earn a little money, collateral reading or an explanation of some school subject he does not like, etc. Give this aid in a tactful way. Make nothing serious of it. When you find him alone, give your assistance as a matter of course.

Let your chief question be, “How can I best serve this boy?” not, “How can I coerce him into a public confession that I am his superior?”

COMMENTS

Miss Garber’s own intolerance may have been the provoking cause of Grant’s resistance to her authority. If Grant sincerely believed he was right and his teacher wrong, it was highly desirable that he should maintain his position until he could be convinced of his error. Grant’s real offense, then, was not the defense of his position, but the rude manner in which he spoke. Had Miss Garber met rudeness with politeness it might have been easier to straighten out the other difficulty. Had she said, in a kindly manner, “Grant, I am glad you have thought over the problem enough to feel sure about it, but you must prove to me that your answer is right, because I think it is the other way: please explain to the class just why you think your way is right,” her words might have served as a challenge which would have awakened in Grant a genuine interest in the problem. At the same time it would have given Miss Garber an opportunity to show Grant just why his answer was wrong.

In regard to the remark on the school ground, she might better have paid no attention to it since it was not made to her. Indeed, her own question as to whether Grant wanted another whipping soon was quite as impudent as Grant’s remark (about the whipping) was untruthful.

By laying too much stress upon minor points, a teacher weakens her influence in weightier matters.

(11) Impudence due to teacher not understanding the pupil. Adults are never able quite fully to appreciate the wide difference between their knowledge and the small amount of general information which is found in young children. A college instructor, accustomed to deal with college students, has been known to severely reprimand a well-meaning high school student for guilty, willful and malicious ignorance, when, as a matter of fact, she was not yet equipped with the information which she was supposed to possess.

In like manner, too often a teacher or a parent will lay severe penalties upon a child who has unwittingly transgressed some law or custom which has long been well known to adults, but which has never been especially presented to the attention of the child.

Occasionally a mature pupil returns after a long absence from school which leads him to ignore many of the little customs that pertain to school life. The pupil has lost a sense of the relations which a pupil has to his teacher and his fellows. When he returns, he is more or less restless under the peculiar methods of association that belong to typical school life.

Such a pupil is more or less of a misfit until he recognizes his former adjustment to school conditions. He may behave like a visitor for a time or act in some other adult fashion which more or less contravenes the established school custom.

CASE 36 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Sensitiveness

Andrew had been taught mainly at home until he had finished the work of the grades. It had been a long time since he attended school. One morning in the class in arithmetic in the Edgerton High School, Andrew blurted out to his teacher, “I don’t like to have you talk about my mistakes the way you do.”

Everybody was shocked, including the teacher, a man of experience and large physical equipment.

“Why, what is the matter, Andrew?” said the teacher.

Immediately Andrew continued, “You just make a fool of me when I am trying to solve problems on the blackboard.”

The point was that Andrew had been offended because of the just criticisms of his teacher when reviewing Andrew’s blackboard work before the class.

The teacher soon formed an opinion as to what was the matter with the boy, and immediately delivered a caustic and sensational lecture.

The substance of it is the following: “Andrew, you have come to this school thinking that you know about all there is to know. You have come here as a spoiled boy, and you will have to be taken down in proper fashion unless you change your attitude. The thing for you to do is to keep your mouth shut and do what you are told to do. If you can’t do this, we will make the way easy for you to step out of school.”

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Andrew should be taken into the office for private conference with the teacher. Until the hour for the conference, Andrew should be dismissed from the class and the sensational scene in the classroom avoided. Andrew spoke out of a sense of growing injury. Help him to analyze his attitudes and see how it has come about that he is over-sensitive to a proper classroom discipline. The conversation with Andrew may include some of the following statements:

“Andrew, you have been doing some very good work since you came into our school. I have watched you with interest, and yet I have felt that you need some further help in adjusting yourself to school conditions. You tell me that the Rodger boys have stood behind you in this attitude of criticism and defiance. What did they actually say to you?” ... “Well, it would be better for you to attempt to understand this school, and its way of doing work, and to avoid yielding to any such advice as that. You need to remember that you are one of a number of pupils and that all are receiving the same sort of treatment. I shall be very glad to give you special help at any time when you may need it, while at the same time I feel justified in discussing any mistakes that you may make. I want you to be very cautious hereafter about how you address any of the teachers, remembering that they are your friends and are laboring for your best good always.”

COMMENTS

If the teacher speaks to Andrew in the presence of the class, he may easily lose his temper, as was the actual case in the narrative recorded above. The instructor uttered, perhaps, no very offensive sentiments, but his manner, while suffering from mild rage, was entirely unbecoming a teacher in the presence of his pupils. The offense was not so grievous but that disposition of it could have been postponed; also, the teacher is more likely to think out the best method of procedure, if he does not act hastily. Andrew has become somewhat unbalanced and needs advice rather than penalty in order that he may properly adjust himself. He is unsocial in his sentiments, having grown up so largely in isolation from other children. At best, his adjustment to life amongst a large number of other persons will be difficult.

The method suggested above will avoid an estrangement and cement the friendship between pupil and teacher, and make further coöperation in the classroom and elsewhere more hearty and profitable.

(12) Threatening the teacher. Such an offense as this strikes at the very roots of the social organization, for teachers are officers of the state, intrusted with the great task of developing citizens. To threaten their authority is to set one’s self against the social trend, to be an individualist—which is to be an anarchist. The teacher who is threatened by a pupil has only to fall back upon his ultimate authority, which is the whole fabric of organized society, represented by whatever officers he may count upon to support him—for sometimes society’s officers are not true to their trust.

Two examples of this offense happened in one of the northwestern states, and their respective treatments illustrate the point. The teachers in both cases were stalwart six-footers, capable of whipping the young bullies who challenged their authority; but neither of them believed in corporal punishment.

CASE 37 (UNGRADED RURAL SCHOOL)

Anarchy

Trygve Andreasen, the first teacher, was threatened with being “taken outside and shown a thing or two” by a hulky young man who persisted in talking in an undertone during school hours. Trygve believed in moral suasion, and tried it:

“Yes, Olaf,” he said, “I suppose you could take me outside and show me to a good licking if it happened that way. But suppose you did? Would you be any better for it? It wouldn’t teach you one word or make you one bit better educated. Here you are, nineteen years old, and only in the Sixth Reader. It’s education that makes a man powerful, and you need it. Brute force is an animal’s way of gaining his ends. Besides, I like you and want to help you make the most of yourself. Let’s be friends—won’t you?” Olaf listened with a grin to this touching appeal.

“So you don’t be too smart, I’ll be friends,” he replied; and turned with a murmured sneer to the girl behind him, in whose eyes awe and admiration were mingled.

Trygve sighed, but comforted himself with the idea that he had shown a Christian spirit toward his unruly pupil. He tried to help him with his lessons, in which Olaf took small interest; but Olaf received all his advances with amused tolerance and slight response. In the hope of finally winning him by patience and kindness, Trygve put up with much annoyance and much interruption of work. In the spring Olaf, still unconverted, left school to go to work.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Types differ. A good teacher will soon discover the characters of his pupils, especially any who promise to make trouble. He must fit his appeal to their stage of development and personality.

Trygve had abundant opportunity to share in the life of the community and to show how brains could guide muscle and make it ten times more effective. He must win Olaf’s admiration by an exploit; local conditions must dictate just what to attempt.

COMMENTS

Trygve made the mistake of appealing to standards which Olaf did not possess, and which he was incapable of appreciating. The men who were his ideals have perhaps never reached the Sixth Reader, nor did the lumber jacks among whom he had grown up yield loyalty to any power that was not material. To be strong enough to “lick” any adversary was his highest ideal, as well as that of the girls and boys in whose eyes he wanted to appear a hero.

There is no need for kindness to content itself with weakness. A giant will can act with the greatest sympathy. If Trygve strengthens his attitude and plays the part of a full grown man, he can win the allegiance of everybody in school.

ILLUSTRATION

Spit-balls

The effective treatment for such a case was adopted by George Levenson, who taught a school in the same neighborhood and met the same problem. In his case the offender was a fiery young Irishman, Tim McCarthy, who had an uncontrolled sense of humor which delighted in breaking up school sessions with all sorts of mischief.

He was amusing himself one day by hitting his chum, Jim McClure, on the ear with spit-balls. Mr. Levenson caught him throwing one, and told him to go out into the hall.

“Go yourself!” sang out Tim, who was in a very cocky and exultant humor that day.

“Tim, will you go at once into the hall? I don’t want to make you do it.”

“I should say you don’t want to make me do it. If you try I’ll wipe up the floor with ye, and there’ll be nothing but a grease-spot left.”

“I don’t intend to make you do it, now. You have committed a very serious offense, Tim. I shall have to leave it to the authorities to settle.”

“What is that ‘serious offense’?” demanded Tim.

“You threatened me. Of course I know I could whip you if I wanted to, but I am here to teach school, not to fight. I don’t know what Mr. Pearson will do; I shall have to report it to him.”

“You’d better not!” Tim muttered; but he was visibly impressed, and threw no more spit-balls.

That night Mr. Levenson called on the district superintendent and had a confidential talk with him. The superintendent was a clever man and knew just what was needed. He spent a half of each day in the school and kept a firm hand on discipline.

A Striking Incident

In the conversation that followed Mr. Pearson narrated a similar incident in his early experience. After the offenses became numerous he decided to call in the county superintendent. “In the conversation on the telephone with Mr. Aldrich I asked him to come; in conclusion I said,

“‘And by the way, you and the sheriff are good friends, aren’t you? Why not bring him along with you? It would clinch matters.’

“‘Capital. Depend upon us if I can find him. If I can’t, it may be day after tomorrow when we come.’

“They came the next day, however. When Mr. Aldrich’s familiar Ford drew up before the schoolhouse there was a flutter of excitement among the pupils, and when a second man followed him it became intense. They entered, warmed themselves, and then Mr. Aldrich turned to me.

“‘I understand that you have a pupil who has threatened your person and your authority here,’ he said. ‘Which boy is it, and what is his name?’

“Fred was pointed out. He had quite ceased to be a hero, and his face was almost white. Very impressively Mr. Aldrich inquired the details of the incident from the teacher, securing corroboration from Fred and other pupils. The sheriff stood by like an avenging spirit.

“‘I wonder if you realize, my boy, that you committed an offense punishable by law in threatening Mr. Pearson? As long as you attend this school you are absolutely under his direction, and you must do as he says if we have to call the state superintendent up here. However, this is your first offense, I believe. Have you anything to say for yourself?’

“‘I didn’t mean no harm,’ Fred parried.

“‘Yes, you did mean harm, but the point is you can’t do harm. The whole state will prevent your doing harm, but something’s going to happen if you ever make any such threats again. What do you say, Sheriff?’

“The sheriff considered gravely, cleared his throat, and finally suggested that the young man be put on probation. This, after more consideration, was agreed upon, and the subdued and puzzled Fred was left in peace and to the digestion of several new ideas, chief of which was the idea that a teacher does not depend upon unsupported authority in his requirements.”

Mr. Pearson went on to say that he saw the complete folly of such a way of dealing with the case.

A Better Method

“I have told you this story to show you how not to proceed with this boy. I think you have made a mistake in not getting Tim tied up to you in some way. Leave him to me. We’ll see what can be done.”

The superintendent met Tim the next morning early. The following interview occurred:

“Tim, I’ve been looking over the batting averages made in our league games. I see you stand next to the head of the list. I’m mighty proud of this.”

“I’m glad I done it, Mr. Pearson. I wish I could ’a done better.”

“Well, Tim, you have a strong right arm. The next thing I want to do in athletics is to get an outfit of boxing gloves. I want you boys to have a chance to learn boxing.”

“Bully thing! Won’t we go to it, though!”

“I find that Mr. Levenson is a good hand with the gloves. He’s agreed to coach you fellows, if the boys want to take up a new sport.”

“Well, I guess we do. I’ll see.” Tim spoke with less enthusiasm because he would need to make some readjustments in his attitude toward Mr. Levenson before taking boxing lessons.

In a short time Mr. Levenson was at work with the boys. The gloves proved an effective medicine for Tim and all who chummed with him.

COMMENTS

The boy who threatens a teacher with personal violence is usually still in the stage of control by force. He can understand a force weaker than himself, he can understand a force stronger than himself, but he can not understand a force which is essentially different from himself. What Mr. Levenson and Mr. Pearson did was to show him a force which was both stronger than and different from himself—the force of a thoughtful man under control. In his limited experience he had never met this force in opposition to himself, nor had he learned consciously to work with it rather than against it.

The experience was his first conscious clash with social forces, and it was so managed that he came out of the experience a more promising citizen than before. Had he been arrested for assault, as he might have been, he might have had a jail experience which would have left him resentful and diminished his self-respect. However, Mr. Pearson’s object was not to punish him unless that was absolutely necessary, but rather to show him that the society approval he gained by insubordination was as nothing compared to the greater satisfaction he might gain by traveling with the social current.

6. Quarrelsomeness, Bullying and Fighting

Dissensions like small streams are first begun;

Scarce seen they rise but gather as they run!

So lines that from their parallels decline

More they proceed, the more they still disjoin.

—Garth.

It is distasteful to a first grade teacher to be called upon to pacify the petty quarrels that children in the first grade sometimes have. While this annoyance is not very marked in the first grade, still it is prevalent enough to need discussion. Besides, the quarrelsome habits that a child may acquire in the first year of school may cling to him throughout life and prove a burden, seriously handicapping him in his life’s vocation.

The first step toward preventing quarreling among children is to remove, as far as possible, all causes that may instigate quarrels. Some pupils who enter the school quarrel frequently in their homes and, much to the discredit of the parents, quarrel with them even. Provoked by the least pretext, such children will quarrel with their schoolmates. Children who are not allowed to quarrel in their homes will often quarrel at school enough to be annoying. Both types of pupils will respond to the same treatment, but the method will only be completely effective in the latter instance. The former class may cease to quarrel at school, but they will undoubtedly continue it at home.

Punishment does the offender little good; it serves to drive the child to quarrel at times when the teacher can not find out about it. This will add to the quarreling habit, deception, which is a bad fault in itself. It is too fundamental a rule to pass without mentioning at this point, that punishment never removes the motive of any misdemeanor. The desire to do the wrong remains, and what is worse, the tendency often seems to be removed, when, in reality, the child, through a spirit of revenge, resorts to some wrong act which can be hidden from the teacher, but which will still satisfy the lower nature. In other words, to forbid the performance of a misdemeanor in a child’s life and to substitute no activity in its place leaves a gap in his life into which, if undirected, he will probably put some wrong act.

Even in higher grades quarrels among children seem unavoidable, but are not really so. Some one threatens injury and the response comes quickly in the form of coercive measures for rescue or defense. Sometimes the provocation is real, sometimes imagined.

The onset of the quarrel usually finds expression in faultfinding. The offender’s sins are held up to view and satisfaction is demanded. Failure on the part of a comrade to repudiate the irritating conduct usually ends in anger, and sooner or later in a vigorous quarrel or even fight.

The tendency to anger can not be eradicated. It is a self-preservative instinct and hence must be controlled, not uprooted. By controlled is meant that the emotions must be drained off into another channel, and the quicker this is accomplished the better for all concerned, for, in general, anger increases in intensity by being expressed, and also begets a corresponding anger in one’s opponent.

CASE 38 (FIRST GRADE)

Over Toys

(1) Quarreling on the school grounds. Walter Hendricks and Teddy Brownlow were children of well-to-do parents who supplied the boys liberally with helps. Being surfeited with apparatus of all sorts, nothing pleased them for long, hence they were constantly desiring each other’s pencils, and, when no other way of getting them presented itself, would snatch them from each other. This led to constant bickerings between the two boys. Finally the teacher’s patience in settling disputes became exhausted and she said, “Boys, I am going to slap your hands the next time they do such naughty things!” After a few experiences of this sort with the teacher, Walter and Teddy decided it was the part of wisdom to avoid further quarreling in her presence, but on the playgrounds no abatement of the nuisance was observable.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

The teacher who is eager to prevent quarreling and to eradicate it from a child’s conduct, will first of all keep close watch over her pupils. She will always be in the room before the time set for the pupils to arrive. Each pupil as he comes will take his seat and as a result there can be no quarreling, for the opportunity is removed. At recess time, all play and recreational activities are supervised by the teacher or physical director. Again the opportunity for quarreling is removed. This same supervision is carried on during every play period. The teacher or supervisor of play who is most discreet will make much headway in keeping out of quarreling. However, should a quarrel arise in spite of the teacher’s efforts, the teacher or supervisor should at once go to the pupils and in a kindly manner command them to stop. She can add a few words of kindly advice and then keep one of the offenders with her during the rest of the play period.

COMMENTS

Being unkind or rough with the offenders, would only add antagonism to hostility. The pupils are in belligerent moods and the least unkindness of the teacher will meet opposition. The prudent teacher endeavors to calm the ruffled spirits.

ILLUSTRATION (SECOND GRADE)

Misunder-standings

Prudence and Rebecca started to school together. In fact, even before the beginning of their school days, they could have been seen playing together, in the sandpile in Rebecca’s yard, sliding down the cellar door in Rebecca’s yard, swinging in Rebecca’s swing in the barn. So it was that they came to school ready-made friends, and were chums during the first year.

With the beginning of the second year, however, Miss Bunthy noticed a decided change in the attitude of the girls towards each other. No longer would they come to school with locked arms. No longer would they sit side by side during recess as they had done formerly. Then their hostility broke into open battle. Prudence came running to Miss Bunthy one recess crying, “’Becky hit me, she did!”

“What made her do that?” asked the teacher.

“Well, just ’cause I wouldn’t give her a piece off of my orange.”

The offending ’Becky was brought into the room and severely reprimanded.

Then later, “Prudence took a sheet of my tablet paper and didn’t give it back.” This from ’Becky at the close of school one day.

The next morning Miss Bunthy gave a little talk about paying back small obligations, and watched to see if Prudence returned the borrowed sheet. Noticing that she did not do this, Miss Bunthy asked her to stay in after school.

“Why didn’t you give Rebecca the sheet of paper you took from her yesterday?” she asked Prudence in a confidential manner.

“’Cause her mamma borrowed our clothes-line and never gave it back. My mamma had to buy a new one.”

“Well, but that doesn’t excuse you, Prudence. You must be fair and square with ’Becky, and your mothers will have to settle their own disputes.”

The next evening after school, before the children had time to reach home, Miss Bunthy was in Rebecca’s home explaining about the misunderstanding between Rebecca and Prudence, and its cause.

She learned that the matter of the clothes-line was an oversight on the part of Rebecca’s mother, who, being very sensible, took the correct view of the affair, and remedied it very tactfully.

Prudence and Rebecca again played together.

Spite

(2) Spite between brother and sister. It is only once in a great while that a village or city first grade teacher may have two children from the same family together. However, it is common to have brothers and sisters together in rural schools. Because of poor home training, two sisters, two brothers or a brother and sister may be antagonistic towards each other. Perhaps no better word can describe their attitudes than the word spiteful. This may spring from various sources, which, in the end, matter little. It is the teacher’s aim to have such children become amiable toward each other. Again it can not be unwise to teach such children that it is not right for them to dislike each other. Such instruction must be given in an affectionate manner.

A very good way to treat two children that are antagonistic toward each other, is to lead them into fascinating school work. Another method is to ask the two children to do some work for the teacher. Whatever the teacher asks them to do she must be careful to supervise. The teacher is to displace hostility by coöperative activity.

For example, a teacher may have some papers to sort, the erasers to replace or some other trivial piece of work to do such as opening three or four windows. She may say, “Come, children, let us open these windows. You open that one, and you that one.” Whatever method she uses to distract their minds from each other, she must continue it long enough for the children to have forgotten their antagonism.

(3) Quarreling while going to and from school. By this time the thoughtful teacher will have said, “Pupils are easily kept from quarreling at school, but what about going to and from school?”

CASE 39 (FIRST GRADE)

Habit

Henry Sanderson was addicted to quarreling and also to fighting, both on the school grounds and on his way home. Every morning some one or more of the first grade children came to the teacher, Miss Burnham, with a tale of woe regarding unkind words, or blows, or other annoyances for which Henry had been responsible on the way home the night before. Finally his teacher said, “Henry, every time I hear of your being quarrelsome with the children, I’m going to have you stay in at recess the next day.” For a day or two this plan worked and the teacher congratulated herself that Henry’s fault was cured. The cure was of short duration, however, and from this time on most of Henry’s recesses were spent in the schoolhouse, thereby depriving the boy of rest and recreation that he very much needed.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Use the same care as in previous cases with regard to supervision of play and seating in the schoolroom. In addition to these precautions see that Henry is sent home in the especial charge of some older pupil who can be trusted with the responsibility of his deportment while on the way home. If there is no such pupil who can be made the teacher’s ally, win the affections of the child until he is willing to abstain from quarrelsome ways in order to please his teacher. If even this fails, retain him at the schoolhouse until the other children are out of the way.

COMMENTS

Quarreling in Henry’s case had reached the stage of being a habit. A bad habit can only be cured by establishing a good habit in its place.

Little children should rarely be deprived of recess periods. The vigorous exercise of play is itself one of the best possible preventives of quarrelsomeness and fighting. Absence of such rest after enforced quiet and the restraints of the schoolroom will be one of the very best provocatives for disturbances of all kinds. The teacher who, as a means of punishment, frequently deprives pupils of the recess period, is not only harming the child but is also inviting further trouble from other disorders.

ILLUSTRATION (SECOND GRADE)

Coöperation

Miss Benedict, a second grade teacher in the town of Milford, had one pupil, John Dwier, who was addicted not only to quarreling but to fighting. All through his first year he had annoyed his teacher in this way. Miss Benedict talked with John, urging him to give up this bad habit, but to no avail. She decided that some new plan of overcoming John’s tendencies must be devised. She began by making a careful study of John’s interests. She made them her interests also. Often in the morning when he came to his seat, she would sit down with him and talk about those things she knew interested him. Before she knew his interests she would show him puzzles on his slate, or she brought curios from home to show him, and little by little she got into his life and learned what he liked. At play she always managed to control John by playing with him. She took Saturday afternoon to go out exploring, as she and John called it. They named as many flowers as they could. Of course, the teacher knew the names for but a very few flowers and weeds and she told John that she did not know many, so they decided to call the unknown ones “strangers.” They watched the birds, butterflies and bugs.

One snowy Saturday afternoon, Miss Benedict went with John and several children who took their sleds and spent the time coasting and studying the tracks of birds and little animals.

However, all this time, John had some very heated quarrels on the way home from school, and usually ended his quarrels with his fists. But the teacher’s time had not yet come, she was patient.

Her next step was to ask John whether he would not stay with her each evening, for a few days, to help her about ten minutes with some work. John loved her and consented. The work was coloring drawings on the blackboard and such other odds and ends as she knew John would like. Then while he was helping his teacher, the other pupils got home. When John was ready to go he walked part of the way with his teacher, who would neither quarrel nor fight with him, and the rest of the way by himself, another character with whom he could neither quarrel nor fight. He always reached home happy. No one knew but the teacher that John was being kept from the other pupils after school so he could not quarrel or fight.

Finally, the day came when the teacher took John on her knee to have a long and earnest talk with him. She had chosen the time after school when all the pupils were gone. She had also chosen the evening of a beautiful day, a day in which John had had all his lessons well. She explained to John how she loved him. This he knew because she had displayed it to him. He loved her. Then her conversation drifted into what she felt would help him to be a good and useful man. He was keenly interested.

At last she told him how she disliked quarreling and fighting. He agreed with her. Then she asked him if, whenever she had no work after school for him, he would not wait a few minutes until the other pupils were out of his way so he could walk home by himself. “Or,” said she, “if you care to do so, John, you can leave school ten or fifteen minutes before it closes and be at home by the time the other pupils are dismissed.”

The teacher told John she was doing this to help him. He understood. Her love and humane and square treatment of the little offender was such that she had his confidence and good will. He obeyed her. During the spring months John’s mother came to tell this wonderful teacher that John was a different boy. That boy is now a young man, and the letters he writes to that teacher are beautiful. They would stimulate any teacher to greater efforts. But the teacher had paid the price. She had sacrificed. Many teachers try for three or four days and lose patience, give up and, what is worse, lay the blame for failure upon the boys and girls.

(4) Bullying. Bullying is just a cowardly kind of unprovoked fighting, and even more exasperating because of the contemptible spirit shown.

CASE 40 (EIGHTH GRADE)

Knocks Down a Boy

Willard Helm, an eighth grade boy in the Parkington School, found the most of his sport in teasing smaller boys. He was too lazy to get much fun out of the games on the schoolground.

Friday on the way home from school, he fell in with Dee Longmans of the sixth grade and soon found occasion to knock him down. Dee pulled himself together and immediately reported the incident to Willard’s teacher. On Monday morning the following conversation occurred between Miss Frederick and Willard:

“Did you walk home with Dee on Friday?”

“Yes, I did,” said Willard with a forced frown.

“You knocked him down at the park corner, didn’t you? What did you do that for?”

“Well, he said I was—”

“Never mind what he said. I want to know why you pick on smaller boys and treat them so meanly,” said Miss Frederick, with a rising tone of scorn.

“Well, we were just having some fun.”

“Yes, I know you; you’re just a little tough, aren’t you? You want to be a sort of bully, don’t you? You’ll make a pretty sort of a man.”

“Well,” said Willard, a smile breaking over his face. Then he began to laugh. He couldn’t help thinking how Dee had tumbled off into the gutter. He began to think by this time that Miss Frederick’s talk was “just talk” and so he grinned and then fairly rocked in laughter, glancing at her with rolling eyes to see how she would take it.

Of course she made no impression on him after this state of affairs was reached. But this was her parting shot.

“Willard, I don’t want to hear of your doing anything like this again. Do you hear me?” and she shoved him toward his seat.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Instead of faultfinding and scolding, adopt an altogether different plan. Make no mention of misconduct, but say to Willard,

“We have a number of boys in the lower grades that need to be looked after a little. We teachers have been talking it over and we have decided to ask some of the bigger boys to keep an eye on some of the little fellows, particularly in the running games, where sometimes they get knocked down and run over. Will you take a hand in this sort of thing? Well, I’m glad. Really, we ought to do the same thing whenever we meet the little fellows on the street or at home. We are to be big brothers to the little fellows and see that they are not imposed upon.”

COMMENTS

Substitution

This method takes Willard by surprise and sets him to imagining himself in his new role. He wants to be a hero of a novel type. His passion for lording it over a smaller boy is gratified in a harmless way; he sees nothing ridiculous in the fine self-control and good sense of his teacher. This compels him to respond with an attitude of respect instead of one of disrespect.

ILLUSTRATION (THIRD GRADE)

Mrs. Wheaton called to see Miss Bates, who was a teacher in the third grade, and said:

“Hugh comes home from school crying almost every night. It seems that Ira Hood throws his cap over the fence, pockets his ball, in fact, teases him until he gets him to crying with vexation and then laughs at him for crying. I know Ira is not in your room, but I thought maybe you could do something about it.”

Miss Bates conferred with Ira’s teacher and they decided to make Ira the custodian of a collection of insects, and another boy the custodian of a collection of pressed leaves. The pupils in both rooms were divided into two groups, one group to help each of these boys to collect specimens. Hugh was given a place in Ira’s group and urged by Miss Bates to get as many insects for him as possible.

Two weeks afterwards Miss Bates called upon Mrs. Wheaton and said: “How is Hugh getting along with Ira now?”

“I have heard of no complaint for a long time; in fact, Hugh seems to like Ira now and is doing his best to help him with his collection of insects,” said Mrs. Wheaton.

(5) Fighting as result of accident. To the boy, as to the primitive man, fighting is the simplest and readiest way of settling disputes. Substitution is, perhaps, the principle which will oftenest avert a conflict.

CASE 41 (SECOND GRADE)

Snow Battles

On a bright winter’s morning, Miss Elsie Wiseman was on her way to school when one of her second grade pupils dashed through the gate and walked beside her.

“Why, hello, Francis! How are you this morning? Have you had a fine time in the snow?”

“Yes, we had a snow battle after school yesterday.”

“You did? Tell me all about it.”

“It was this way; we divided up into two sides, piled up a lot of snow balls and then tried to capture the pile of balls on the opposite side.”

“Did you have a good time?”

“O, just a dandy time, ’cept Willie; he got hurt and I guess will have to have a real fight to settle it,” said Francis with some alarm.

“Why, I hope not. Tell me more about it.”

“You see, some made ice balls and Willie got one on the ear. Now he says I’ve got to fight him. He says we must each get two other boys and have a fight to settle it. I ’spose we must or the scrap won’t end.”

Here is a situation that needs some careful handling. How would you proceed?

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Your best plan is to continue the conversation as follows: “I suppose you don’t really want to fight, do you? Now, I have a plan that seems a good one. I think it will work all right, and then there will be no need for any one to get hurt. You go to Willie and say, ‘I’m sorry that snow ball hurt you’; then reach out your hand and shake hands. He will not want to throw snow balls at you any more and he’ll think a lot more of you than he would if you fought him. You try this plan, then come and tell me how it works.”

Keep your ear open until you get a report from Francis. Almost certainly he will announce that the proposed fight is off. If so, say:

“I’m glad you have fixed that up like gentlemen.”

COMMENTS

In most cases fights among children of the lower grades have very little basis in reason. There is a tradition that makes fighting seem a good thing, but there is not sufficient steadiness of nerve and purpose to provoke much genuine fighting. Consequently the teacher does well not to dignify these encounters either in her own opinion or in her talk with boys. Allusions to fights may be passed over lightly in conversation, even though a serious purpose to eliminate them is necessary. Furthermore, it is easy to substitute some scheme that is only remotely related to fighting as commonly understood. One can draw off this combative impulse into some parallel activity with the greatest of ease.

ILLUSTRATION (THIRD GRADE)

Diversion

Miss Baker was sitting at her desk correcting papers after eating her noon-time lunch, when in came a group of whispering little girls who showed even in their manner of walking that they had something important to tell.

When Miss Baker looked up, Nancy Reed said, “Orvil Harn and ‘Jud’ Hicks are going to fight.”

“O, hurry up, Miss Baker, they are going to fight right now,” said Lora Yoder.

Miss Baker hurried out and found a crowd of boys around Orvil and Judson, urging them to fight.

She stepped into the middle of the ring and giving a hand to each of the combatants said, “I want to hear about this; let us go into the house.” The boys complied reluctantly.

On the way in, she noticed an ant hill by the walk and stopped a minute to look at it, saying, “I am so much interested in ants. They have so many sensible habits. Don’t you like to read about them?” she said, smiling down at the boys.

On the way to the schoolroom she told a funny story about an ant that floated down a river on a leaf. The boys were looking at each other smiling before they thought of why they had come into the house.

“Now,” said Miss Baker, “you tell me what troubled you out there in the yard, Orvil.”

“‘Jud’ took my cap and ran with it.”

“He pushed and kicked me as we went out to play,” said Judson.

Miss Baker looked out of the window a moment and then said,

“What do you think is best to do about it now, boys?”

“O, I guess it’s all right now,” said Orvil.

“Let’s go out and play. Will you come with us, Miss Baker?” said Judson.

“Gladly,” she replied.

She knew that the boys had lost their anger when they had laughed together about the ants. She asked them what had been the trouble in order to make them see that even their griefs were of interest to her. She was not at all surprised to find their anger forgotten so soon. She went to play with them in order that she might thus protect them from the remarks of the other boys who would have enjoyed seeing a fight.

(6) Fighting due to classmates’ ridicule. Children are exceedingly thoughtless in regard to making fun of individuals who are markedly different from other members of the group. Only vigilance can forestall the suffering so caused.

CASE 42 (EIGHTH GRADE)

Drunkard’s Son

John Shoemaker and Carl Jones were classmates in the eighth grade. John was a pale-faced, undersized boy, the son of a drunkard. Carl was a plump-faced, rosy-cheeked son of a well-to-do farmer, the picture of good health and physical energy. Carl’s parents had very strong opinions regarding temperance, and they were very anxious that their only son Carl should grow up with the same feelings as themselves about the use of intoxicating liquors. They often talked to him, and in his presence, to others, of the evils of intemperance, and by way of illustration, and in order to give point to their instructions, would sometimes add, “Just see what intoxicating liquors have done for the Shoemakers! Old man Shoemaker is a disgrace to the town and John hasn’t a decent suit of clothes to his back! He looks as if he never had enough to eat!”

Unfortunately, Carl had not learned during these otherwise wholesome lessons to distinguish between the sin and the sinner, or even between the sinner and innocent victims of another’s sin. One recess Carl, full of the “I-am-more-righteous-than-thou” attitude in which most persons who have never been tempted are wont to indulge, called out to John in a mocking tone:

“O Shoe-shoe-Shoemaker,

When did you make your shoes?”

John’s pale face flushed, for he knew his toes were peeping through the ragged shoes, and when a moment later the younger boys caught up the jingle, repeating it in unison with great emphasis upon the accented syllables, John suddenly sprang at Carl and in a moment both boys were rolling on the ground in a desperate fight.

The teacher, Miss Black, called the boys to order, ascertained the cause of the fight, and then said, “I am very sorry, boys, but I shall have to keep both of you in from recess for a month. It is a very serious offense to fight on the school grounds. Perhaps by the end of the month both of you can learn to be gentlemen.”

Carl received the sentence angrily, as he thought of all the fun he would miss, and John’s hurt face revealed how keenly he felt the injustice of the situation.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Such a case as the above would better not be settled hastily. Be deliberate enough in your proceedings to give anger time to cool and to be replaced, in part at least, by more generous impulses.

Learn whether the motives and attitudes prompting the fight are characteristic of Carl only, or whether they represent truly the dominant feelings of the whole school. In the latter case the punishment of the two boys must be followed by effort, on the teacher’s part, to correct the crude ideals of the children as a whole.

This can be done through story work, or by coöperative work of some kind, or by games, in which democracy reigns supreme and individual distinctions are lost sight of in interest in the work itself.

After learning the main facts in the case—and these should usually be left until the other children have gone home—say, “Boys, this trouble which you have brought into the school is so serious, I want to think it over. I would like you also to think it over and be ready to tell me tomorrow what each one of you can do to right the wrong you have done.

“Remember, you have not only hurt yourselves and each other, but have injured the good name of the school. This is all for tonight.”

One at a Time

On the following day, talk with the boys one at a time. You will need to say things to each of the boys that you would not care to say in the presence of the other. Talk with Carl first. He is in reality the greater offender. John could be dismissed with the words, “John, I shall not have time to talk with both of you this afternoon. I will see Carl today. Tomorrow I will talk with you.”

Alone with Carl, lead him to confess that he was thoughtless on the previous day. He will do it, for he will be only too glad to excuse himself in this way. Then say, “Very well, Carl, if you did wrong yesterday by ‘not thinking’ try to think hard tonight for the little time we are together. Think out this problem for me. Does it take a brave boy or a coward to keep coming to school day after day without complaining, and without absences, when he has to come in ragged clothes and when he knows the boys are likely to make fun of him?”

If for no other reason than to please his teacher, Carl will be sure to say, “A brave boy.” Recall to Carl’s mind whatever is brave, unselfish, or lovable in John, especially if you happen to know that John has given up some happiness for Carl’s sake, or shared some pleasure with any member of the school.

Then ask, purposely using the same form of question that you previously used, “Carl, do you think it takes a brave boy or a coward to make fun of such a person before his classmates—to taunt him about things he can not help, and for which he is not to blame, and to hurt him so cruelly that he is ready to fight even the boy for whom he did a kindness only a few days ago?”

Very likely Carl may not answer quite so glibly this time, but do not press him for an answer. Do not insist that he make any reply in words, but do not be satisfied until you have led Carl to do something better than to make a satisfactory verbal reply, namely, express in deeds that he wishes to make reparation in some way for his unkindness.

Remain silent for a moment or two, while Carl digests the meaning of your question. Then say, in a low, but distinct, firm voice, “Carl, I asked you yesterday to be ready to tell me today how you can make amends to John and to the school for your misconduct yesterday. What is your plan?”

If Carl has really thought of some good thing to do, commend his plan and coöperate with him immediately in carrying it out. If he has no plan to suggest, ask his opinion about two or three courses of conduct which you have thought of. Ask him to think these over during the evening and report to you next morning as to what is best to do, or to suggest a better plan himself if he can think of one.

Your knowledge of all the circumstances will be your guide in advising Carl, but whatever it is that is decided upon, it must not be a sentimental and (probably) hypocritical confession that, “I am sorry,” but rather something boyish and genuine and generous; something expressed in action rather than words. It may be a nutting party to which John will be invited and where Carl will propose to the other boys to put slyly a few of their own nuts into John’s bag; or a picnic where Carl will suggest to the boys to bring a bit of fruit or some dainty to fill John’s pockets with; or it may be a dozen other things that any bright boy can think of—but something that will give the other boys as well as John an opportunity to make amends for their thoughtless unkindness. Carl, however, is to take the leading part and secure the coöperation of the other boys.

Your conference with John will be the easier task to bring to a successful conclusion, especially if Carl’s attitude toward John is, by this time, such as to encourage John to believe that Carl regrets the part he took in the affair and is willing to be friends once more. Yet John is the one who has been most keenly hurt. You must make him understand that you have not shared Carl’s contempt for him because of his ragged clothes and his drunken father. You may say to him,

Just Commendation

“John, I have been so proud of you all this term because you have been so regular in attendance, and because you have done such good work. Your deportment, too, has been excellent until day before yesterday. Was it worth while to lose your good name in school just for a silly, thoughtless taunt from one of the boys?”

Here again you need not insist upon an answer. If John is truthful his answer probably would not yet conform to the implication in your question, and you may well wait until he has had longer time in which to come to your way of thinking. But you may recall to his mind that all persons have temptations to anger, of some sort or other. If they habitually give way to it, all their friends would be alienated before long. Try to get him to do some act that will show Carl he is willing to be friends again.

Never leave a person who has indulged in anger satisfied with himself because of having done so. Never leave him holding fast his grudge. Initiate activities of exactly the opposite tendencies to those which he engaged in while under the influence of anger.

COMMENTS

Miss Black erred by placing more importance upon the punishment of the offense than she did upon removing the causes which brought about the offense.

She erred again in feeling that the case was disposed of with the pronouncement of the punishment by herself and with the acceptance of the same by the boys. In truth, she had not even touched upon the more serious aspects of the case.

Had Miss Black been on the alert, she probably would have earlier discovered tendencies among the children to make fun of John. This should have been treated in a general way by means of story work, talks on good manners, etc., and thus the quarrel very likely might have been averted.

Miss Black erred again by being in too great haste to have the matter settled. Very much is gained, in such a case, by waiting until the first heat of passion has passed away. The settlement must not be too long delayed, however. Once the incident is partly forgotten, the lesson which might have been learned from it loses its force, by again dragging back into consciousness the angry feelings which accompanied the original act.

ILLUSTRATION (SEVENTH GRADE)

Stammering

Sammy Hendrickson was a fiery little seventh grader who was always having “scraps” with boys who mimicked his stammering speech. “Hit ’em back,” was his father’s advice, and Sammy followed it, not because it helped his stammering, but it relieved his feelings.

When he was promoted from the sixth grade to the seventh, his new teacher, Miss Noyes, picked him out immediately as a child who was likely to be teased by his classmates. She resolved that she would forestall such conduct, with the resultant fights, if possible, and by so doing shield Sammy from a torture which his thoughtless companions were likely to inflict upon him.

With this in mind, she made it a point to be on the playground with the children whenever it was possible, and in many little ways showed the children by her own example that she expected Sammy to be treated with a little more than usual consideration, yet so as not to make him feel himself a privileged character, allowed to do things which other boys might not do. In the games requiring choice of partners she often chose Sammy. When the games were over she often took her place beside Sammy and exchanged a few words with him partly to win his confidence, partly that her presence might protect him from being made the sport of the others. She realized, too, that if the other children were allowed to mimic Sam, they, too, would soon be victims of the habit. Meanwhile she quietly watched to see which children did amuse themselves at Sammy’s expense. These she talked with privately one by one, showed them the rudeness and cruelty of their sport and told them she should expect each one to abstain from such acts hereafter.

No More Mockery

Finally, she called together half a dozen boys whom she had reproved at different times for mocking Sam and said to them, “I am delighted to find, boys, that you have been more thoughtful about this matter of late, and now I am going to ask a great favor of you. Next week I shall be especially busy and can not be out here as much as I have been. I want to make you six a committee to preserve good order on the school grounds and especially to see that no one teases Sam about his stammering.”

The boys lived up to their responsibility so well that very little further trouble was experienced with respect to mimicry.

Miss Noyes did not drop her efforts for Sammy at this point, however. Already he had come to feel so trustful and kindly toward his teacher that he could talk with her more freely than with most persons. When they were alone together she would often say, when he stammered, “Wait a minute, Sam. Take a deep breath. Now tell me what you started to say.” Generally by observing this precaution, Sam would be able to give the sentences correctly. Miss Noyes never failed to encourage him. “That’s better! That’s just fine! You can do it all right!”

During leisure hours she made a special study of stammering and stuttering, and showed Sammy how, by taking a little forethought in breathing carefully and in relaxing the chest muscles and in waiting before speaking until he felt sure he could control his speech, he could help himself greatly.

“Did you see the soap bubbles the kindergarten children were playing with in the yard this morning?” she asked him one day; “and how any hard thing pressing upon them would cause them to burst? Well, play that your words are soap bubbles and let them float on the air just as gently as the real soap bubbles do. Make all the muscles loose and easy as they can be, because if you tighten them the least bit it will break the words just as the soap bubbles break when you hit them with a stick. Now then, gently!” Here she imitated by a motion of the hand the light floating of the bubbles. “Talk just as my hand goes.”

Relieved from fear of being made the butt of the boys’ sport, and finding a sympathetic helper in his teacher, Sammy improved considerably before the end of the year. The other children meanwhile had learned a lesson in consideration for others, which they did not forget after they left Miss Noyes’ room to enter upon the eighth grade work. Furthermore, the children who had learned that lesson best were the ones who most needed to learn it. Coöperation of the teacher with Sammy, and, for the other children, her approval and the substitution of the idea of protection for that of teasing, had wrought the change, and, incidentally, had banished fighting from the playground.

(7) Fighting as an outgrowth of competition. Competition is an instinct that can be turned to excellent account in school life. It is also a frequent source of trouble there.

CASE 43 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Football

Elbert Morgan stood six feet in his socks and weighed half as much as any other three men on the football team. He was a senior in the Middletown High School and the darling of the school because of his unfailing attacks and unflinching defense.

Reginald Phelps, his nearest competitor for honors, had the ill grace to be jealous and to hold a festering grudge against Elbert. In a school of five hundred pupils small quarrels readily become large issues. Reginald easily linked two or three chums into a cabal to pull Elbert down from his pedestal of glory. Their first plan was to convince the coach that Elbert was weak in head work in critical moments and that he should be removed from the position as center. After a few ludicrous failures to make any progress in this project, Reginald next tried to get even with Elbert by provoking a fight.

The coach occasionally split his squad and made two teams by adding a few “subs” to complete the quota. One Tuesday afternoon Elbert being on one team and Reginald with two comrades, being on the other team, the opportunity came for revenge. In the scrimmage Reginald gave Elbert a heavy knee punch on his “wind,” in a way to disclose his venom and enmity.

“You rascal, I know what you are about. I’ll pay you for this,” said Elbert, groaning with a terrible pain.

Soon his hurt eased up and with but little help he rose to his feet, glowered at Reginald, ten feet distant, and fairly leaped across the intervening space.

The Fight

Then followed the fight. All the resentment, suspicion, rumors, vows of vengeance, arose to mind in a moment as the two stalwarts came to blows. When Reginald showed his inferiority in strength two friends attempted to intervene. Elbert suspected their partisanship and drove with a hard fist on each chest, sending them to the ground in a heap.

By this time Principal Maxwell made his appearance.

“Elbert, shame on you! Fighting over a game! Reginald, stop it at once. Off these grounds at once, both of you,” were the principal’s words, all in one breath.

“But Mr. Maxwell,” began Elbert.

“No, no explanation! I saw you. You got up from the scrimmage and deliberately began a fight. You needn’t explain it. You two boys are suspended from the school until the board of education permits you to return. I’ll see that you are not on the football squad again this year.”

With this last speech a howl arose from the players. In a moment more a swift runner reached the grandstand and quickly the news spread among the assembled high school pupils as if it had been the report of a murder.

The team was nearly frantic at the principal’s action. The board, however, decided to restore the boys to school after one week’s suspension and requested the principal to adjust the matter so they could again play on the team.

“Are you going to let them play out the season?” was provokingly asked many times. Mr. Maxwell found, moreover, that unless he restored these boys to their places at least three desperate revolts would break out. He finally yielded and gave the football team, the senior class, and the glee club (of which Elbert was a member) the whip over him for the remainder of the year.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Play More Fight Less

Approach the fighting players with a determination to act very slowly. Take a stand, say, ten feet away from them, and after notifying the coach to call the teams for more practice, say to Elbert and Reginald, “Look here, boys, put all this muscle into another scrimmage. Go into it hard. But do it in the right spirit.”

Let the coach blow his whistle and sweep all the players toward the spot of taking position. Let one or the other of the fighters come up by you, but do not act as though you were a policeman or an executioner. Ignore the fight now that it is over, but see to it that the practice is free from brutality. Have a word with Elbert and Reginald privately to show that you expect fair play in the practice and a manly spirit on the athletic field.

The next day call in each boy separately. Let the boys do nearly all the talking. In a very brief statement confirm their own assertions of what constitutes manly conduct in athletics. Put them on their honor and rely on their self-respect. Inject into your few words a powerful expectation of fair play that will compel them to act as trained athletes, not as quarrelsome children. Coöperation, expectation on the teacher’s part and substitution with a large stock of patience are your best assets in a case like the above.

COMMENTS

Mr. Maxwell failed in trying to solve his problem on the spot and with strict administration of justice, rather than with a spirit of coöperation, and a re-direction of energy. In fact he entered the situation with indignation and actually seemed to be fighting also. He was trying to “down” the two boys with words and gave them harder blows because of his superior authority.

He projected the fighting spirit into the school board and the school societies. Vengeance aroused hostility. If suspension were necessary, it should have been announced privately to each boy. No mention of exclusion from the football team should have been made until after more time had been given for deliberation. If exclusion should finally be necessary, settle the matter between yourself, the coach, and the two boys.

However, this fight could not have occurred if the principal had watched his boys closely enough. High school athletes are eager to have an unsullied reputation. “A good spirit” in practice and contest games is so urgently demanded in, and usually exhibited, by college athletes, that the high school boys readily imitate them. On many occasions before this the principal should have coached his boys so that Elbert and Reginald would not have dared to harbor ideas of physical violence in an effort to gain vengeance.

ILLUSTRATION (HIGH SCHOOL)

The way in which the principle of substitution was made to assist in settling class difficulties is illustrated in the following story.

Class Flag

Mr. Hatch was principal of the East High School in a small city in Missouri. His splendid executive ability and marked insight into the life of the school had made his name highly reverenced in the community.

It had long been the custom in the school to have class distinctions. Mr. Hatch heartily sanctioned the custom, as one which would promote class unity and wholesome rivalry for leadership in the affairs of the school. It drew the pupils of one year into closer relationship and instilled in them a desire to make their class stand out in the estimation of the others.

It was October. The usual class spirit was in the air. Mr. Hatch announced at the morning assembly that class meetings would be held that afternoon for the election of officers and the choosing of the class flag.

About seven o’clock the following morning, Mr. Hatch was surprised by a telephone call from the school janitor:

Flag Torn Down

“Last night a bunch of rowdy schoolboys broke into the school, went up into the tower, and tore down the school flag. When I came to work this morning I saw a piece of blue and white cloth up instead.”

Before Mr. Hatch arrived at school he heard from another source of the hand to hand fight between the freshmen and sophomores in the school yard the previous evening. And the torn up turf stood as evidence in the case.

“That is only natural,” thought Mr. Hatch. “I’ll have to give that surplus energy another outlet.”

He sent a notice to the teachers to say nothing about the class fight that day. A faculty meeting would be held in the afternoon to decide upon a course of action.

Through his suggestion, the motion was carried to have two class games of field hockey; one, between the first and second years; the other, between the third and fourth years; the dates to be arranged by the athletic board. The victors of the first day would be honored by having their class flag put up with the school flag the day following the game.

In the same way, the victors of the second day were to be designated. A final game was to take place between the two successful teams; the winners would receive a trophy.

In order to lodge this idea, not as an order but as a suggestion, Mr. Hatch privately conferred with the athletic board, submitting only a bare outline of procedure and leaving the details of the program to be worked out as each class saw fit. This action on the principal’s part transferred any responsibility which he had assumed to the body of pupils.

When the classes took up the suggestion in their subsequent meetings, it came, not as a ruling of the faculty, but as an original idea on the part of the athletic board.

So an antagonistic school spirit was turned into a wholesome channel. The class spirit was not crushed, the pupils were satisfied to turn their class loyalty to the support of a contest sanctioned by the school, and a custom was established which was handed down from year to year, a heritage of good sportsmanship instead of a barbarous practice of giving vent to ill-will.

7. Instinctive Fear

Fear is plainly a self-preservative instinct which is of great value to the child in keeping him away from dangers which might easily result in serious injury. But fear has little value in the schoolroom. Instead of aiding the child it cripples, hinders, even paralyzes, his action so that he not only does his daily work with less freedom, but frequently fails outright to perform the task assigned, even with his most conscientious effort. If teachers doubt this statement let them observe the effects of fear upon themselves and note whether they have more or less self-control when under the influence of strong fear. Fortunately, few teachers resort to this method of control at the present time, but here and there one may still be found who has not yet learned the fact that ruling pupils by fear is a confession on his part that he is a poor disciplinarian.

First Grade

The first grade teacher, however, through no fault of his own, is often confronted on the first day with a great many children who are afraid of him. This characteristic is not so marked in the village or city schools, where children are accustomed to strangers, as in the rural school, where children come in who have seen but few strangers. It is not uncommon for a teacher himself, who, for the first time, steps into an unfamiliar school, to be afraid. This fear is written on his face; then it is little wonder that the children display fear. All that such teachers need to do is to put on a smiling face and meet the children with kindly greetings. A “Good morning, how are you?” and other cordial expressions will reassure the children. Through the day the teacher will be friendly and kind, complimenting each about something done; show some novelty or even give the shy child a pencil or picture. Within one week any child who is afraid of the teacher should have learned not to fear him. Every unkindness will aggravate the fear and only make it more difficult to remove.

A pupil who will not recite is sometimes considered a problem in the schoolroom. Such a pupil will not often appear in any grade except the first, and as a rule only in country schools. Then, usually, it is not because the pupil is stubborn or possesses some other vicious trait; he may be bashful or may have received inhumane treatment at home. Whenever a teacher finds that he has such a pupil it is not wise to attempt to make him recite. That will only aggravate the bashfulness or fear, and may even antagonize the pupil, making the trouble worse.

The first thing for the teacher to do is to be kind to the child. Show him some little favor. Instead of attempting to make him do school work, he should not be required to do any for a week or more. This time is given to aid him in becoming accustomed to new associates and surroundings. There should be no hint as to work. The week should be well used in getting the child’s interest and confidence. Besides, he is childish enough to watch the other pupils at work and feel an innermost interest in their activities. The teacher can loan him picture books and other interesting objects. He, too, can show some of the other pupils’ work. Finally, he can allow some other pupil to sit with him and teach him how to draw with colored pencils. It is only natural that a child who is doing school work should be interested and attempt to tell what he knows to another. The teacher must not let the children sit together too long. In about six or seven days at most the first grade child that refused to recite will begin to manifest an interest and join the classes without further effort on the part of the teacher.

Crying

Crying is often very annoying in the first grade. It may be due to fear, illness, an accident causing pain, a habit, or it may constitute the child’s chief means of securing what he desires.

If a child is suffering from some malady, as bad digestion, earache or other pains, the parents must be consulted, and an attempt made to have them put the child under a physician’s care until cured. It is most lamentable, indeed, that so many parents pay no attention to the ailments that so often worry little children. If the parents will not coöperate with the teacher, then all the teacher can do is to be sympathetic with the child and attempt to alleviate the pain. Such a child should not be treated harshly, that would only add to his suffering.

Whenever a child is hurt, the teacher should go to his aid, offering sympathy. However, it is not judicious to say, “That is too bad.” This may frighten the child and make him cry the harder. It is better to say to the child, “Never mind, I’ll fix that in a second and then you can play again.” Even though the accident is serious and requires the attention of a physician, the teacher should relieve the child from anxiety. Do not allow other pupils to exaggerate the accident.

Crying merely as a habit is quite prevalent in the first grade and is caused by poor methods of child training at home. Find out what usually causes the child to cry. Remove these causes as far as possible. Avoiding the things that cause the child to cry will help cure the habit. Whenever the child cries, go to him at once and in a pleasing manner say, “Just wait! I want to get you something.” Such a statement will attract the child’s attention and he will stop crying long enough to see what you are getting. Then get something that will interest him. Do all of this quickly so that the child will not have time to go back to crying. Keep the child interested until he forgets to cry. Common sense with this method will cure almost any child that habitually cries. Treat repeated offenses in the same way. The wording of the requests can be changed, if only they are suggestive and gain the child’s attention.

The child that cries to gain what he desires has been so trained at home. It is, indeed, a bad type of training, but the teacher can improve the child in such a way that the parents will wonder what influences are at work. Should a child cry for something he wants, it will only intensify the habit to grant him his desire. A typical case is a child crying to go home. The method of procedure is the one given above. Apply the principle of suggestion, and follow the suggestion by quick substitution of the thing that will interest the child. All requests should be made by the teacher in an attitude that will make the child feel that the teacher expects nothing else but compliance with her requests.

(1) Governing through fear. Teachers intimidate their pupils; they try to scare them into getting their lessons and behaving properly. While this may accomplish the desired results in a measure, it does not bring out the best a child is capable of, or help him to gain a real education in self-reliance, control, etc.

CASE 44 (FOURTH GRADE)

Spelling

Miss Stevens had taught the fourth grade for twenty years, and was one of the old-fashioned pedagogues who always kept a whip in her desk and believed in governing her charges by the fear of it.

“Now get to work on your spelling lessons, everybody. James McGuire, if you miss a single word I’m going to whip you. You can learn to spell if you make up your mind to, and I’m going to see to it that you do.”

And poor James studied his spelling frenziedly, with the cold perspiration breaking out on his forehead. When called upon to spell in his turn he got successfully through the ordeal the first time, though he trembled so violently that he could hardly stand up. But the second time his turn came around, his word was miracle.

“M-i-r,” started James, and then a cold shiver ran up his back as he realized, terror-stricken, that he couldn’t remember whether it was an e that came next, or an a. “M-i-r,” and another pause during which poor James screwed his face into an awful scowl in the intensity of his effort to remember just how that word looked on page 48 of his speller.

“Yes, yes, hurry up, James,” said Miss Stevens sharply.

“M-i-r-e-c-l-e,” said James, with his eyes shut.

“Next,” Miss Stevens’ voice rasped, and she glared fiercely at James.

A little later Miss Stevens’ eagle eye discerned numerous scraps of paper around Eugene’s desk. Eugene really wasn’t responsible for their being there, for a careless girl had torn up her arithmetic paper and the scraps had blown over there when the windows were open at recess.

“Eugene, pick up those scraps of paper under your desk. And you will stay half an hour after school tonight for being so untidy.”

Eugene was a lad of spirit and had a strong sense of justice. It made him angry to be punished for another’s fault.

“I didn’t scatter that paper on the floor,” he said, rather vehemently.

“Who did?”

“I don’t know,” the answer was quick and a little saucy, though Eugene didn’t mean it to be. He was only defending his rights in the matter.

“It’s around your desk and I guess you’d know who let it get there if you’d think hard enough,” Miss Stevens said sarcastically.

But Eugene made no move to pick up the paper.

“Will you pick up that paper, as I told you to?”

The authoritative, harsh tone roused Eugene to fighting pitch and he continued to sit still in his seat, resolved that he wouldn’t pick up the paper, because it wasn’t fair anyway—blaming him for what he hadn’t done.

Miss Stevens drew out the little leather lash from her desk drawer, and, though Eugene’s heart jumped into his throat at the sight of it, he still sat motionless.

She jerked him out of his seat to a standing posture.

Pick Up That Paper

“Pick up that paper,” she commanded. But he stood still, a strained, defiant look on his face. She brought the lash down on the calves of his legs sharply three times before he even winced. At the fifth blow his eyes filled with tears for he was still a little boy, only nine years old, and he had not yet learned the stoicism which bears physical pain unflinchingly.

The blows fell faster and harder and the smart of them became unendurable. Miss Stevens forced him down into a stooping posture with one hand, plying the whip vigorously with the other.

Gropingly, the tears blinding his eyes and sobs shaking his body, Eugene picked up a few of the scraps. Miss Stevens stopped beating him, but stood over him menacingly until every piece had been removed.

Then, leaving a broken, humiliated, little Eugene, with his face buried in his arms, she turned to the rest of the awe-struck school and resumed the work of the day, a smile of self-satisfaction spreading over her face.

“Let this be a lesson to you to do as I say, at once, without delay. You children are here to study and to do as you are told, and the sooner you learn to do it the better it will be for you.”

She whipped James after school for failing in his spelling.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Instead of helping James’ mind to develop, this teacher actually inhibited its progress.

She might better have said, “James, let’s see if we can’t have every one of those spelling words right this time, so that a nice fat 100 will go down in my book opposite your name. Just think hard every minute of the study period, and I know you can do it.”

And when James spelled the first word rightly, a wise teacher—one who understood and loved children—would have nodded approvingly, or smiled a little in recognition of the fact that James had done well, thus encouraging him to go on and do his best the next time. With this treatment he probably would not have failed the second time.

Always give the child a fair chance to state his case. When Eugene said he didn’t scatter the paper, the teacher should have taken him at his word even at the risk of being deceived, for not trusting a child’s word when he is speaking the truth does more harm than believing several liars.

“All right, Eugene, even if it isn’t your paper, don’t you think our schoolroom would look better if it were picked up?”

And Eugene would pick up the paper—grudgingly perhaps, but much more willingly and with much better results to himself than after he had received a whipping.

COMMENTS

The teacher who governs through fear loses all the confidence of her pupils, and because of this lack she can not reach the heart, can not effectively get hold of the child.

Instead of helping the child, fear prevents him from doing his best, it wastes his energy and distracts his attention. It may sometimes be used as a check to suppress activity, but should never be employed as a spur to incite pupils to effort.

When Not To Whip

Sometimes, for incompetent teachers, there is nothing else to do but to whip a child, no other way of curing him of his fault. But children like Eugene in the incident related should never be whipped. Such treatment irritates them, makes them defiant and more unruly than before; and when they are conquered in this spirit they are harmed infinitely more than they are helped.

ILLUSTRATION

Examinations

In speaking of the effect of fear in the schoolroom, ex-President Harrison said, “Perhaps the stress is applied too early to our little ones; and I throw out this word of caution to our good lady friends here who have them in charge. Some years ago I was passing down a street in Indianapolis from my residence to my office, on which was situated one of our public schools. The children were just gathering in the morning. As I came near the corner, two sweet little girls, evidently chums, approached from different directions, and, meeting at the crossing, soon had their heads close together, but not so close but that I caught the conversation. One said to the other, ‘Oh, I had such an awful dream last night.’ Her sympathizing little mate put her head still closer, and said, ‘What was it?’—‘Oh!’ said the trembling little one, ‘I dreamed I did not pass!’ It is safer to allow such little ones to dream, as in my careless country boyhood I was wont to dream about bears.”—Address at Saratoga, July 12, 1892.

(2) Fear in reciting. A pupil treated for a series of years as was James in the previous case will likely develop an almost pathological fear of the oral recitation by the time he has reached the high school or even earlier. Pathological fear, from any cause, is difficult to handle.

CASE 45 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Nervousness

Blythe MacLane was in her senior year of high school in Middlebury, Connecticut. She was a very nervous child and because of this, had always been allowed extra privileges in the school, which other pupils did not have.

When called upon to recite, she would say, “Please don’t make me rise, Miss Hutchins. I get so scared when I get up, I forget everything I know.”

Miss Hutchins always gave in. “All right, you may remain seated if you wish.”

Or, when certain papers were chosen to be read at the literary society, Blythe was always excused from reading hers.

If her paper was especially good, Miss Hutchins would say in class, “I wish Blythe’s paper could be read at the meeting tomorrow. Will you read it for her, Josephine?”

Later, when Miss Hutchins was working out the details for the Commencement program, she said to Blythe, “I’m going to seat you at the end of the front row, Blythe, so that you will not have to walk across the stage for your diploma.”

And again, “I did not give you a special part on the program, Blythe, because I know how frightened you get when you have to speak before an audience.”

“Thank you, Miss Hutchins. I think I should die if I had to walk across that platform, and as for taking part in the program, I know I should just sink through the floor when I got up to speak.”

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Encourage in every possible way a child who is afraid to speak before people. In the classroom, insist that she rise when reciting but be careful at first to keep her standing only a moment or two at a time. Pay no attention to the fact that she is nervous or that her parents have given in to her because of this. Treat her as if she had no fear. Frame your questions and modulate your voice in such a manner as to develop confidence in your pupils. Instead of saying in a blunt, unsympathetic way, “Why did Lincoln issue the Emancipation Proclamation?” say, “Blythe was talking with me in the library one evening last week about her life in the South. It was especially interesting to me because of our study of the Civil War. I am sure the class will enjoy hearing it, too. Blythe, repeat to me what you said that day.”

If a literary program is being planned, provide a place for the girl who is afraid to speak before an audience, if it be only to read a familiar passage. If a dramatic sketch is to be given by the school, select a part for such a girl, if it be only to walk across the stage with a tray. Try always, and in every situation to center her thought upon the thing done, thus diverting her consciousness from herself.

COMMENTS

Miss Hutchins made a great mistake in giving in to Blythe’s weakness. The girl would not have begged to remain seated, would not have excused herself because of nervousness, if Miss Hutchins’ attitude had been one to instil confidence in the girl.

Miss Hutchins only encouraged her pupil to further fear by providing a means by which Blythe would not have to read her paper before the literary society, and still further by speaking of this before the entire class.

So again, when Miss Hutchins was making out the program for Commencement, even if she thought it was necessary to seat Blythe as she did, she should not have called the girl’s attention to the cause. Such evidence that Miss Hutchins recognized her pupil’s fear, served only to augment this weakness, as was seen in Blythe’s final remarks.

By appealing to the pupil’s personal experience, any fear she may have will be likely to be dispelled, since she is on perfectly familiar ground. By saying, “I am sure the class will enjoy hearing it, too,” you are establishing in the girl’s mind your confidence that she will recite. Further by implying your question in a declarative form of statement, you are driving out the fear that a direct question often suggests.

Pupils of high school age are old enough to be stimulated by the suggestion that it is becoming more and more necessary now-a-days for women to preside over meetings and in many ways take the lead in circumstances that bring them more or less into prominence; and that the very best place to train one’s self for such work is in the little class affairs where only kindly sympathy will be felt for any one who is a little timid; and, furthermore, that a few triumphs over self will banish the fear.

ILLUSTRATION (HIGH SCHOOL)

Miss Halleck was an English instructor in a high school in a small town in Pennsylvania. She had the reputation of being closer in touch with her pupils than any other teacher in the school.

Leading Suggestions

She learned the temperament of every pupil and never failed to give careful consideration to the laggard, the listless, or the nervous child.

One young girl had such fear when called upon to recite, that she could hardly stand up.

“Muriel, you are interested in gardening, aren’t you?”

“Yes.” (This was said while Muriel remained seated.)

“I knew you were. Do you remember what you told me about your dahlias?”

“Yes.” (This is said in a more interested tone of voice.)

“The class should know this, Muriel. Stand up and tell them what you told me.”

Muriel responded with flushed cheeks, embarrassed, to be sure, but not to the degree that fear was foremost in her mind. A substitute in the form of a personal interest had taken its place.

8. Cheating

(1) How it is provoked. The teacher who walks about the schoolroom, first looking to the right, then to the left and finally spinning around to look back of himself, is casting dares at his pupils. If such pupils do sneaking tricks and acts, it is no one’s fault but the teacher’s. By acting the spy in the schoolroom, a teacher does not need to tell his pupils he mistrusts them; his actions speak louder than words. Pupils who have no confidence in their teachers will do almost anything to provoke them. To get the confidence of a pupil is to train him so that he will respect the wishes and requests of the teacher enough to obey them cheerfully.

Among the various activities of the sneak, none is more frequent than cheating. Cheating belongs, probably, under disorders arising out of self-preservative impulses, since it has in it a large element of fear—fear of failing to get a coveted standing, fear of losing the approval of teachers and admiration of classmates, and fear of too inquisitive questions or possible reprimands at home because of low standings. Usually it is the weakling who cheats. The strong pupil has no need of such cowardly devices hence is not greatly tempted to use them. If bright pupils do cheat it is chiefly because a habit of doing so has been formed in the class as a whole, and when a habit of cheating is general it certainly should be laid to unwise handling of the matter on the part of the teachers.

(2) Two methods of procedure. Two general plans of procedure are indicated in the constructive treatment of such cases. The first aims to reduce to a minimum the element of fear; the second to build up a public sentiment against it.

With a view to the first step, do not talk too much before the pupils regarding examinations and never in a way to make pupils feel that they are a frightful bugbear to be constantly kept in mind and struggled for. The thought of the lesson, and its practical uses should be kept uppermost, not the examination. If the lessons are as well adapted to the pupils as they should be the interest in the lessons themselves will absorb the attention of the pupil and not much thought will be given to the examination. The pupils should know beforehand, however, about what time the test will come, so that any child who has been ill, or who is otherwise conscious of weak places in his work, may be amply prepared for examination day. This of itself will remove much of the temptation to dishonesty.

On the day before the test (or earlier) tell the pupils just what subjects to be prepared upon. Meanwhile allow any pupil who honestly needs assistance to come to you for it. Never allow him to think, however, that you will give to him any help that all the others might not have in preparation for the test.

Write the questions for the test or examination with extreme care. The slightest ambiguity in wording of the questions will lead some pupils to be mystified and to ask for explanations as to the meaning of this or that. Such questions of necessity lead to confusion and this confusion will be utilized by the dishonest members of the class for communicating with classmates or otherwise cheating in regard to their work.

Explain Your Meaning

The day before the test, give all directions necessary regarding seating, paper, form of writing, material for writing, etc., so that the element of uncertainty and fear as to what is coming may still further be removed. Explain the object of the test. It is an extra day thrown into the routine work, giving opportunity for the pupil to review the past work, to look up and strengthen any weak places in his study and then to test his knowledge by putting it down on paper. Explain how just the act of writing out one’s thought makes that thought clearer, how it shows each one whether he has really mastered his lessons as well as he had supposed. Tell how it helps the teacher also because it shows her that some points have not been explained by her as carefully as they should have been and after reading the papers she knows just what points need further explanation or review. Let the talk show the pupils that their papers give the teacher information that she really needs to know—that they are helping her as well as themselves in taking the test and let the whole impression of the talk be that of mutual helpfulness in the matter. Correct the impression that most children have, that the greatest favor they can do the teacher is to get the right answer. Show them that it is much more important for her to know if the work has been understood. Make out the questions, not for the brightest pupils in the class but for the average pupil.

The majority of your pupils are average pupils. It is not fair to them to include in test questions (unless they are made optional) certain ones that only the most advanced pupil in the class, or the child who has had exceptional advantages could answer. Avoid all possible suspicion of unfairness and in so doing remove another possible stimulus for cheating. In other words give pupils every possible reason for confidence in your justice. Never hold up examinations as bugbears to be feared.

The first test of the school year should be given early in the year, before much ground has been covered. The first two or three weeks’ work is likely to be less good than that which follows even where pupils and teacher are all doing their best. A few pupils have been late. Two or three have been transferred from other schools. There has been slight delay in getting books in one or two cases and even under the best circumstances it takes a little time for both pupils and teacher thoroughly to readjust themselves to the new work of the schoolroom after the very different life of vacation time. For all these reasons the first test should not cover so much ground that the pupils may not have ample time to make a thorough review of the work done thus far. As soon as possible after the examination the teacher should review the general results with the class, being careful to commend every good feature, something after this fashion:

“I was very much pleased to find questions 2 and 5 so well answered. We will take a few minutes for further discussion of question 6. It is necessary to understand this point in order to have a good foundation laid for our next work. I am sure that your next test will be better still now that you know just about what to regard as the most important things to study.” Let all your conversations about tests and examinations be in a cheerful tone of voice, never giving the suggestion in any way that they are anything to dread or that you expect anything from the pupils but the same frank statement on paper that you ordinarily expect from the same pupils when conversing with them.

Question Carefully

Very much can be done by a tactful teacher to prevent cheating by asking the questions in such a way as to remove the temptation. “Do you think Gen. Grant’s plan of the campaign (that we have been studying) was wise or unwise? Give your reasons for thinking so,” is a better form of question for a test than to say “State Gen. Grant’s plan of a campaign and give his reasons for the same.” The first question takes the emphasis off of the mere memorizing of words and places it upon the child’s individual judgment, thus giving him confidence in writing his answer since his statement may be very different from his neighbor’s answer and still be right. With confidence in himself and in the justice of his teacher there is little encouragement to cheat.

In the meantime while avoiding any act or word which would tempt a child to cheat, by your own example and by suggestion build up a sentiment of honor among the pupils in regard to honest work. Above all when you make mistakes, and all teachers do make them, yourself admit them freely in the presence of the pupils. Show them that correcting a mistake is the important thing, not covering it up, or pretending to a knowledge that one does not possess.

(3) Cheating by the pupils.

CASE 46 (THIRD GRADE)

Alma Montrose raised her hand and Miss Noles said, “What is it, Alma?”

“Ike Saunders is cheating,” said Alma in a reproving tone of voice.

“Isaac, are you cheating?” sternly inquired Miss Noles.

Copying Arithmetic

“No, ma’am,” answered Isaac while he hastily slipped into his desk the arithmetic paper from which he was copying the work of the boy in front of him. Miss Noles continued the recitation.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Never ask a pupil in the presence of others if he is cheating. Determine by observation or by private questioning of some one else. Remove all incentive for cheating that you possibly can, such as proximity to another who is doing the work, notebooks on desks, etc.

COMMENTS

Cheating is a kind of falsehood. One who cheats will ordinarily tell a falsehood to defend himself. The wisest treatment of the one who is suspected of cheating is to place not only him but others of his class in a situation where it is practically impossible to carry on cheating without detection.

ILLUSTRATION (THIRD GRADE)

Reading Answers

Clarence Stover was hearing a third grade arithmetic lesson. He noticed that Louis Lebenburger kept his eyes downcast while he recited. Stepping quietly to one side as if to arrange the curtain shade, the teacher could see that Louis had his book open and was reading his multiplication table from it.

Returning to his desk, Mr. Stover said: “That was very good, Louis. Come here, please.”

As Louis stepped to the desk Mr. Stover said, “Louis, I am very much pleased that you know your 7’s so well. Turn to the school and say them to all the children.”

Louis begin glibly:

“7 times 1 are 7

7 times 2 are 14

7 times 3 are 25

7 times 4 are—”

“Wait a minute,” said Mr. Stover, “7 times 3 are how many?”

“25,” answered Louis.

“How many children think Louis is right? Hands up!” Not a hand was raised.

“How many think he was wrong?” All over the room hands came up.

“Go on, Louis,” continued the teacher, “7 times 4.”

“7 times 4 are 32,” said Louis.

“Right or wrong, children?”

“Wrong!” shouted a chorus of children.

“Why, how is this, Louis?” said Mr. Stover. “You knew these numbers perfectly a moment ago. Come here, Louis.” Louis stepped to the desk. His back was now turned to the school.

“Louis,” said Mr. Stover in a voice purposely lowered that the other children might not hear. “Were you cheating when I called on you a moment ago?” Crestfallen, Louis knew he was caught, so nodded his head in the affirmative.

“I am so sorry!” Mr. Stover continued. “I was trusting you as an honest boy. You have shown me that you were not worthy of such confidence. (After a pause.) Louis, do you know any grown person who is so tricky and so dishonest that everybody despises him?”

“Yes, Mr. T.,” answered Louis.

“Do you know any man who is so strictly honest and reliable that everybody trusts him?”

“Yes, Mr. L——.”

“Which would you rather be like, Louis?”

“Like Mr. L——.”

“Very well, sit down on this front seat and learn this table of 7’s. I will hear you recite it at the recess period.”

In a few minutes the lesson was learned and recited. Louis was dismissed to finish the period on the playground.

CASE 47 (EIGHTH GRADE)

Passing Answers

“You may all take your books home tonight—every one. Don’t bring any pencils or paper with you to school tomorrow. Don’t bring any notebooks or any notes in your pockets.” This was Miss Justin’s announcement to her eighth graders in preparation for a coming examination.

The next day she shifted her classes so that no one sat in front of a classmate, and gave a history and a German test at the same time. Clarabelle sat at the rear of the second tier of seats; across the aisle sat Thurman.

“Thurman, what was that you picked up from the floor just now?”

“I don’t know. I h’ain’t picked up nothin’,” was Thurman’s confused reply.

“Now see here, Thurman, I saw you pick up a small piece of paper. Don’t you make a move until you hand me that paper.”

Thurman could hardly obey this order, though he did make some effort to keep quiet. Miss Justin came to him, demanded the paper, was refused, boxed Thurman savagely on the left ear and went back to her desk.

Thurman had said he had no paper and Miss J. could not be sure that he lied. After school Phronsie came to her teacher, saying, “Here is a paper that seemed to blow over to my desk. I thought I should give it to you since you told us we could not have notes in school today.”

Miss Justin looked through her papers and found that Clarabelle’s hand had written the notes on the history lesson—dates of the presidential administration with one error. Turning to Thurman’s paper she found the list, including the error; the proof was conclusive.

She thought, “Thurman has already had one smart blow from me today. I’ll mark his paper off 20% for cheating. That gives him two penalties. But Clarabelle! She’s taken a fancy to that boy and stops at nothing. I must give her a penalty.”

Next morning she confronted her pupil with the evidence and gave her a choice between two alternatives: to write a letter describing her act of helping another to cheat and to read it to the pupils in her room; or she might face the superintendent with Miss Justin, who would tell the story and abide by his decision.

Clarabelle got permission to take a day for deliberation. Her parents were angered and decided to take her out of school. She never returned.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Miss Justin was decidedly wrong. Study the methods of such famous teachers as Mrs. Johnson of Fairhope, Alabama. Conduct tests sometimes with books open, not to have pupils show off their powers of memory but to show how they can use books to solve problems and to reveal their power of doing new tasks. Let the history “exam” be a contest in story telling: some pupils telling the story completely; at other times have three pupils tell the story in relays. In German let pupils have all the books they want but prepare an examination that requires speed so that amount of accurate work shall be the basis of grading; have more questions than any one pupil can get over. Divide your class into three groups, rapid, medium, slow and make allowances for the medium and slow so that justice shall be done to all.

Do not talk about cheating. There will be no chance to cheat if you follow the plan just described. Deal with any flagrant case of cheating with extreme privacy; it is a disgrace to provoke children to cheat and you should try to hide the affair and save the culprit from yielding to a similar temptation should you be so unfortunate as to place another one in his way.

COMMENTS

There is no way of escaping examinations. But only weak teachers resort to the old-fashioned typical memory test as their main stay for examination. With very moderate inventive powers a teacher can easily rise far above the level of prying bits of formal knowledge out of a child’s brain by means of set questions. Many an examination can be passed through with the pupil unaware of the fact that he has been examined. The problems have been so dressed up as to become discussions, reports or even questions proposed by the pupils. It often takes as much information to ask detailed questions as it does to answer them. By sharing the dignity of asking test questions, pupils come to enjoy the “game” of the day and refuse to consider unfair means.

Miss Justin did not make nearly enough of such pupils as Phronsie. The honest, painstaking pupils are usually far more numerous than they are supposed to be. Every one of them must be yoked into the school “team,” so that the pull of the careless ones will have very little effect. Sometimes, indeed, a pupil’s influence will do even more than the teacher’s to eliminate the habit of cheating, as in the case cited below.

ILLUSTRATION (EIGHTH GRADE)

Miss Nelson, the eighth grade teacher, had the reputation of being “stiff.” She assigned long, hard lessons every day, and her examinations were nightmares to her scholars. But she was near-sighted and her pupils had formed the habit of cheating—peeping into the book during a recitation, and helping each other in tests.

Gertrude Hayes entered the eighth grade long after the year’s work had begun. She had been there a week only when Miss Nelson gave the class a particularly hard examination in geography.

“How did you answer the third question?” was written on a slip of paper handed to Gertrude by her neighbor across the aisle.

Gertrude went on writing, paying no heed.

Refused to Cheat

“I’ve got the exports of the South written on a piece of paper. Do you want it?” whispered the boy back of her.

Gertrude shook her head.

The next day in history class she was called on to give the details of Sherman’s march to the sea, which was in the latter part of the assignment. Before the class was called she had told Grace, who sat in front of her, that she hadn’t read all the lesson.

While Gertrude was thinking what answer she could make, Grace opened her book at the page on Sherman’s march, pointing with her pencil to the lines which would help Gertrude out.

“I don’t know,” said Gertrude, and saw a 0 go down in the class book for that day’s recitation.

Grace looked at Gertrude in round-eyed astonishment. At noon she asked, “Why in the world didn’t you let me help you in history class? She’s as blind as a bat and wouldn’t know it.”

“Because I didn’t have my lesson and I wasn’t going to cheat about it.”

Grace felt rather uncomfortable and decided that she wouldn’t let Gertrude see her cheat after this, anyway.

Before long everyone in the room knew that Gertrude never had cheated and couldn’t be persuaded to do so. Several of the girls followed her example and refused to help or be helped when it was not fair. By the end of the year cheating in the eighth grade was still carried on, but surreptitiously, for those who still cheated were ashamed of their dishonesty and were anxious to be thought as honorable as their classmates who had given it up.

Thus was a new standard of honor set up in the eighth grade room by the persevering honesty of one little girl. To the credit of Miss Nelson it should be said that quietly she had taken note of Gertrude’s conduct and influence. There was no public demonstration, but by silent communication and little individual signs Gertrude was made fully aware that she held the fullest esteem and confidence of her teacher.

CASE 48 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Copies Science

It was the evening of the first day of mid-year examinations at Mount Hope High School. Miss Noland was correcting algebra papers and wore a troubled frown as she glanced over Oliver Geigler’s paper, not because it was so incorrect but because it was so well done. Oliver could never have written it unaided. That she knew. She resolved to keep a lookout the next day while Oliver was writing examination papers, and if she could get conclusive evidence that he had cheated she would deal with him accordingly.

Fifteen minutes after the class in general science began to write their examination, Miss Noland very stealthily crossed the room apparently to get a pamphlet from the bookcase, but really to see why Oliver Geigler was sitting back so far from his desk while he wrote. Sure enough, his open science book was halfway out of his desk on his lap and he was looking at it. The slight noise made by the shutting of the bookcase door caused Oliver to look up and to see that Miss Noland was near. He instantly moved up nearer to his desk, thus shoving the open book into it and assuming studiousness, gazed fixedly across the room as if trying to recall the answer to a question.

Miss Noland went to him, reached into his desk and took out the open book and said:

“You march right into the office and tell Mr. Russel that you were cheating! I’ll be in there as soon as I can get away from here to see what you have told him. Nobody can cheat in this room and escape being caught at it.”

Resentment was marked even in the boy’s slow movements as he got up and went to the office. Mr. Russel suspended him from school for a week and told him that he must promise to stop cheating when he returned to school.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

When you have reason to believe that cheating is going on in your classes, create a class sentiment against it and as far as possible remove the temptation to dishonesty. You can create a sentiment against it by talks and stories upon the subject of honesty given before the entire school and by appealing privately to individual students whom you know to be honest and saying to them something like this:

“I believe you are perfectly honest and would like to have others to be so. You can help to eliminate cheating from our school by talking against it whenever you have an opportunity. Of course we will not talk about individuals who cheat, but will say what we think about the bad effects of cheating itself.”

To remove temptation to dishonesty, be sure that you are fair. Make very definite assignments of what is to be learned so that nobody can possibly be in doubt as to what you will ask. If the lesson is in American history, say, “Tomorrow I shall ask each one of you to write the full name of each of the first ten Presidents of the United States in the order in which they served.” The next day pass out small papers and give them five minutes in which to write the Presidents’ names. Have them exchange papers, let some one read what is on the paper he has while the others check errors on the papers they have. Correct erroneous answers as the reading proceeds. Ask pupils to grade the papers and return them to their owners. Call the roll and have each pupil respond by telling what grade he received. Gather up the papers and verify grades, returning the papers the next day. For the following day give a similar assignment.

Five Minutes Test

Use the five minute test method on any assigned lesson until pupils become thoroughly familiarized with the writing of tests and come to regard it as a usual—not an unusual—experience. Say, “Study this lesson carefully. I will give you a little test on it tomorrow.” Until you can trust the class, give many questions with short answers, rather than few questions with long answers. The pupil who is trying to cheat can not stop to hunt up answers in his book, where things are moving so rapidly. Suppose the science lesson is on water. The day after the assignment, pass out slips of paper about three by six inches in size. Say, “Put your name at the top of the paper and number up to ten along the left margin. Answer each question in one word if possible.”

“No. 1. Water is made up of two elements. One of them is hydrogen. Write the name of the other after 1 on your paper.”

“No. 2. Write one word in answer to this question, Which is heavier, water or ice?”

“No. 3. Write in figures a number. At what degree Fahrenheit does water boil?”

“No. 4. Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ to this question: Can you tell pure water from impure by sight?” Continue up to ten, asking such questions as may be answered by one word or one number. Have papers corrected as indicated above and keep record of the grades.

COMMENTS

The child who cheats has not been educated correctly and so has not sufficient prejudice against dishonesty. He needs to be educated. The dread of tests and examinations can be almost entirely overcome by giving, almost daily, tests which take up little time, accentuate important features of the lesson, and give equal chances to test the knowledge of all on a few important points. Pupils invariably like tests under the above conditions.

CASE 49 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Undeserved Standings

(4) Cheating by teacher to please principal. There are times when an almost irresistible pressure is brought to bear upon teachers to yield to custom or concede to circumstance. James C— was a junior in the State University of Iowa when it became necessary for him to teach to earn money for his senior year. He secured a position in a small town as science teacher in a high school which had a staff of three—the principal, a good-natured time-server with an eye to reappointment at an advanced salary, and a very pretty and popular young English teacher, whose easy standards and sweet helpfulness endeared her to all her students.

Now football ruled the day at North Burley High School. The team had beaten every town within a radius of fifty miles the year before, and now they proposed to play the teams from some of the larger towns of the state. The coach, an old college player, was exceptionally good, and his team worked like a machine. The star player was Leslie Linwood, a boy who passed his days in sleepy toleration of lessons, only to wake up on the gridiron to a mechanical perfection of response and a cool initiative of successful leadership that insured the winning of games. He was the idol of the school, although he could do nothing but play his wonderful games. Every one bowed down to him as the chief element in a proudly-maintained championship.

There was, however, one old-fashioned board member who thought football an unimportant side-line in a high school, and it was through his influence that a rule existed to the effect that no student who had not passed in three studies for a month previous to the playing of a game should participate in a game. The rule had not troubled the football team—all its members always had 70 or above each month.

But Leslie Linwood took two sciences that year under Mr. C—. He failed outright in physics, which seemed to be worlds beyond his mentality; and he delayed the preparation of the notebook in biology until Mr. C— was compelled to fail him in that study also. He was therefore ineligible to play upon the team, and three big games were coming. Leslie, at the suggestion of the coach, went to Mr. C— and asked for more time for his notebook.

“You had all month in which to write it up,” replied Mr. C—. “Two girls failed to get theirs in, and I failed them. You were not ill; you were just lazy and indifferent. I don’t see why I should give you a chance that the others don’t have.”

“Will you let me have another examination in physics then?” asked Leslie.

“I don’t see why I should. But you can ask Mr. Rounds, and if he says to do it, I will.”

Leslie did ask Mr. Rounds, and Mr. Rounds consented. So Mr. C— gave Leslie another examination in physics, in which Leslie made the grade of 35; and things were worse than they were before.

“But see here, C—,” said the astute Mr. Rounds, “you know you must manage to pass Leslie in one or the other before next Saturday. The whole school expects it; we need him for the Patterson game.”

“But I don’t know how to pass a boy who simply doesn’t know an induction coil from an apple pie,” replied the innocent Mr. C—. “I can’t tell a lie, can I?”

“No, you don’t need to do that, of course. But you must get him through some way. Give him some coaching, can’t you? Of course every one knows he’s stupid; but he can play football, and the school simply wouldn’t stand for his being off the team—to say nothing of the townspeople.”

To Mr. Rounds’ representations the pretty English teacher added some pretty advice, and a score of students haunted his footsteps to know how Linwood was coming on in biology; “Well, then, in physics?” Mr. C— grew a bit thin, as men do who fight a hard fight; for Mr. C— was fighting for his honor.

Mr. C—’s honor lost. To make a long story short, he gave Leslie Linwood another examination on Friday afternoon; and when he had reached his room, he deliberately burned the paper in the Franklin stove without looking at it. He had no delusions as to what he did; he grimly called himself a name that he knew he deserved as the bright flames flashed into his face.

Mr. C— went to the game the next day, and received the smiles of a pleased community with outward calmness. His inward writhings smoothed themselves out after a few days; he found a certain pleasure in being popular, and the contempt of the few people who knew just what he had done did not show itself openly. He finished the year without unpleasantness of any kind, and was “regretted by a large circle of friends” when he declined reappointment in June. He looked like the same man who had gone out to teach the fall before, but he had lost an inestimable treasure; the greatest tragedy that can happen to man had happened to him—he had deliberately sold himself to the public. A chance to work a great reform, to replace a low ideal with a high one, to teach the plastic minds of a whole school the difference between the worth-while and the not-worth while, had been lost. All that had taken place because he had not courage to take a stand upon a plain question of truth and falsehood. He had yielded to mob control.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Evidently Mr. C— had time to measure the situation with care. This matter of failing students is so familiar that he can be prepared, without uncertainty, for puzzling situations.

Refuses to Lie

Mr. C— can proceed as follows: ask the high school teachers privately the following question, “If after a teacher has done his best with a student and he fails, is it right to give him a passing grade?” The answer, “Yes” or “No,” is to be secured from each teacher. Nine times out of ten the answer will be “No.”

Make a record of every effort and failure of Leslie, and at the end make a memorandum of the teacher’s opinion and file it with the principal. Then when questioned by pupils, refer to the facts on this report and say, “I have turned the matter over to the principal.” Have a frank talk with Leslie if you have managed him without friction so far, and if he begs to be allowed to play anyway in spite of the rules, say, “You do not want me to do what is not fair, do you?”

Hold out to the end without flinching, and take the consequences. Have Leslie informed on every step you take.

COMMENTS

The chief difficulty is the over-emphasis which schools place on winning games. If no one takes a stand against dishonesty in giving grades, the reform will never be instituted. If one is willing to leave the school at the end of the year because of his conscience, he would far better leave earlier with a clear conscience and the passing disfavor of the school.

The actual procedure must be determined by the rules in force. The Inter-High School Athletic Association rules must be followed at all hazards. By following the principal’s instructions, turning over Leslie’s papers and assuming that the principal wants the right thing done, he can be made to share the responsibility of keeping Leslie out of the game.

By keeping a few persons informed with regard to your management of every step of the procedure, you will be saved from being falsely accused of giving an undeserved passing grade, or of wrongly depriving the pupil of the same.

ILLUSTRATION (HIGH SCHOOL)

Boy’s Admission

Silas Harper taught German at the Crossville High School with fourteen pupils in the second year class. The same old story of failure to pass threatened to keep Thornton Tanner out of the next football game. Just as soon as the complication took shape, Harper had a clear understanding with the principal, who, not knowing that the star player was in danger of losing his standing, said in faculty meeting, “No pupil who fails in one study can play on the scheduled games.”

All the usual devices for pulling Thornton through failed. The day before the game the following conversation occurred:

“Thornton, have I given you all the help you needed to get your German up?”

“Yes, Mr. Harper, you have. You aren’t to blame if I don’t play.”

“I’m exceedingly sorry; I don’t know any way out. Thornton (looking the boy in the eye), can you say that you have had a square deal and that you are not entitled to play?”

“Yes, I believe I can. But I don’t see that that does any particular good. The fellows don’t care about my studies; they want me to play. They think if I don’t we shall lose.”

Thus the matter ended with the two. When the coach inquired of Harper about Thornton, the situation was explained and no hope of relief developed. The principal was deeply annoyed over the situation. He said:

“I’m afraid we made a mistake somewhere. I think we’d better let Thornton drop German from his schedule and so free him from the record of a failure.” Mr. Harper remained silent for a moment; then he remarked:

“I can’t agree to that. I will make my written report to you and to the superintendent and explain the situation to my German class. The athletic rules as understood by the boys themselves will not allow Thornton to play. I can’t yield to popular clamor and give a grade where the boy himself affirms he doesn’t deserve it. Your plan will put him on the team, but it will not make him respect honor or law.”

The principal carried out his plan. The pupils knew all about it; they rejoiced over the splendid victory; but their respect for the dishonored principal was easily eclipsed by their silent admiration for Silas Harper, their enthusiastic supporter in athletics, but unflinching champion of right.

9. Lying

No more harmful misdemeanor than lying can be discussed. It is fortunate that it is not very prevalent in the first grade; still that does not remove the very urgent importance of using every caution to prevent and cure it whenever and wherever it is found. When one learns that most of the great newspapers of the country will flagrantly print lies to make otherwise unnoticeable articles of news “catchy” and exciting; that great stores, and small ones as well, have systems of lying devised to allure trade; that everywhere in this busy world lying is the basis of all dishonesty and graft, the teacher can not fail to see the necessity for right training in this direction. A lie is not so many untrue words; it may be work not done as agreed upon, a contract worded in such a way as to evade responsibility, or a thousand other ways of deceiving. Lying has crept into every avenue of municipal, state and national affairs. In view of all this, the teacher must do all in her power to prevent and cure lying.

Types of Lies

Lying may be variously classified, according to motives. However, for the teacher’s purpose, it is only necessary to recognize four types of lying according to the motive.

First, a pupil is often forced to lie, because the teacher pursues some indiscreet method which he mistakes for shrewdness, but which, in reality, is only a trap in which to catch pupils, with the result that a lie is the product of the method.

Second, pupils that have very imaginative minds often tell the teacher a story or some incident which they color to suit their keen imaginations and thereby strain the truth.

Third, children lie very frequently because of fear.

Fourth, perhaps the worst form of lying is that by which children try to obtain things they want, believing they can not secure them by being truthful.

In a certain school some petty offense had been committed on the playground. The teacher did not know who had done it. After the bell rang and every pupil was in his place, the teacher passed from pupil to pupil down and up each row of seats asking, “Was it you?” To make her questions more imperative she punctuated them by a sharp look or pointing her finger at each pupil as she asked the question. From each little tot came a simple, “No.” But some one of the pupils had committed the offense and all replied, “No,” therefore one of the pupils had lied. Why? The teacher had instigated the lie. Little do teachers think that such methods as this are productive of more harm than good. Finally this same teacher will ask, “Does any one know who did it?” All are afraid to admit who did the act in spite of the fact that every pupil knows just who committed the offense. In the last round of what the teacher deems her shrewdness, she has led every pupil to lie. Teachers who follow such tactics know little or nothing about human nature or child psychology.

A Teacher’s Blunder

The teacher who bluntly asks a pupil, “Did you do that?” is paving the way for a falsehood. Again, what teacher can not recall entering the schoolroom and finding a vase broken, a window pane broken, or a choice sentence erased from the board and at once commenting in a strained tone of voice, “That is too bad! I wonder who did it.” Again the opportunity for a falsehood is provided. The thoughtful teacher, from the above suggestions, will be able to recall many instances where she in effect forced pupils to tell falsehoods.

To prevent all such lying, the teacher must carefully study the method she is planning to use in ferreting out some mischief, before she uses it. She must study its effect upon the children; if it has the slightest tendency to cause them to prevaricate, then it is far better to leave the mischief unnoticed than to cause pupils to tell lies.

Talking on Truth-Telling

In this instance the teacher would have done the right thing had she explained to the pupils the value of truth and how she appreciated a child that told the truth. She should have explained that older people break things, commit offenses and make other mistakes. The mistake is not so bad in itself, for every one is liable to make a mistake. Further, the teacher should plainly point out to the pupils that when any one has made a mistake or committed an offense, or broken something, the deed is smoothed over and mitigated when the offender tells the truth about it. Teachers have no right to make a new law for themselves; it is God’s law to forgive any and all offenders, if they will but come to him and confess. What is confession but telling the truth?

Children in the first grade are not too young to have the matter of truth put before them in this manner. After the talk the teacher must avoid any attitude of questioning or even of suspicion, but go on about her work in the kindest mood. As a rule, before many hours her patience will be repaid by a little form at her side, whose eyes fill with penitent tears, and she will hear a story of truth that will gratify her heart.

What should the teacher do with such an admission? Approve such a child for its truthfulness. Thank him. He deserves all the kindness and sympathy a teacher can extend. To treat a child like this about an offense will remove the motive for lying and the chance for offenses. Besides he has been encouraged in telling the truth and afterward will doubtless continue to be truthful.

Every community has its liars. Some communities have more than their share. Who knows but that these liars may not, once, have been children who told incidents, accidents and stories to parents, playmates and teachers and, by reason of an imaginative mind, added little flourishes of their own. Some teachers do not call such statements lies, but whatever part of the incident, experience, or story, was recited for the purpose of deceiving was false. It is true, children are called upon in language classes to write about such subjects as, “A Ride on an Ocean Steamer,” “A Street Car Accident,” and many others that describe something that has never entered into their experience. This is imagination, and while it has its value, it has its dangers also. There is a movement away from the practice of having children write about imaginary things; instead they are instructed to write about real things. This tendency is very proper, but does not mean a total neglect of the cultivation of imagination.

The Imaginative Lie

To illustrate just what is meant by the lie that may grow out of the imagination, a child comes to the teacher and begins telling her about the antics of a little baby brother or sister. The teacher shows an interest in what the child is telling. Every child likes to be admired and approved because of what he can do or tell. The teacher’s pleased look and smile stimulate the child to make his conversation as interesting as possible, and almost without any effort he can put touches of exaggeration into the conversation about the baby.

Again, who has not watched a group of first grade pupils at play, and overheard them telling things to each other which could not possibly be true? They imagine themselves merchants, aunties and uncles, and concoct conversations that would rival the art of any story-teller. It is this imaginative impulse that prompts them to color so many of the incidents they relate and often leads them to tell for the truth things that never happened.

It is a question whether it is best to throttle the imaginative wanderings of the child mind or not. It is doubtful if harm can come from the imaginary conversations of children at play. In reality they are getting themselves ready for the activities of adult life and mayhap it is the best wisely to guide them in their play activities rather than suppress them.

But should a child let his fancy persuade him to strain the truth when he tells an actual occurrence? The teacher can very easily curb this tendency by not showing an interest in what the child is telling. How should this be done?

Every teacher knows that as the child talks he looks into the face of the teacher. There he notes the raising of the eyebrows, the twinkle of the eyes, the faint trace of a smile, and the line of the lips, all of which are indices of the mind of the teacher. Every teacher knows quite well that his face indicates to a pupil whether the answer he is giving to a question she asked, is right or wrong. These signs in the teacher’s face either encourage or discourage a child. The teacher who wishes to disapprove of any untruths a child may weave into his conversations, needs but to lower his eyes at those points of the conversation where she feels that the child is not relating the truth. Care should be taken not to discourage him in what he is telling. Rather do the opposite. It is the province of the school to enable children to express freely and in good English, those things they know, see and experience. Then it is expedient to show, by the features, disapproval of that part of the conversation only that is untruthful. Encourage conversation about the real. Such a method will hold the child to the truth and will tend to make him strive to tell the truth under all circumstances. However, the teacher must remember that he may still continue to speak of fanciful things, and it is well for her not to attempt to remedy that.

There can be no mistake in using the direct method of teaching truthfulness. To do this a teacher need not say, “Do not lie.” She should use the positive method—tell stories bearing upon the value of truth. She can weave truth into her every day life, the daily lessons, and all other activities of the schoolroom and the playground.

The teacher who tells the pupils how fine it is to be truthful, is dropping a seed which will grow into a great plant of truthfulness in the child’s life.

The Lie of Fear

There is no excuse for the teacher who has a pupil in her room who tells lies because of fear of her. How true it is that so many children tell falsehoods because of fear. In the home, of all places where love and confidence should reign supreme, children are taught to lie because they fear the unreasonable punishments of parents. These children enter school where a cruel teacher sets up a code of rules that she can not obey herself, but expects the pupils to obey. Naturally, in the activities of the schoolroom these children trespass on the teacher’s sacred rules. Then they fear punishment. In order to escape this punishment they tell falsehoods. This is all wrong, and childhood cries out against it. Why can not parents win the confidence of their children by love and sympathetic guidance and treatment, so that they will openly and frankly admit when they have been mischievous? Why can they not so teach their children that they will tell the truth about their petty offenses? Why, then, can they not pardon them and confidently admonish them to offend no more? Parents are too prone to forget that as children they, too, were mischievous. This is not a discussion for parents, but what has been said is also of value to the teacher, for the teacher receives these children at the age of six and is expected to cure them of all the evils that short-sighted and inexcusable parents have taught; hence, it becomes the teacher’s duty to correct the child that tells falsehoods because of fear.

Heroic measures are not needed. The prudent teacher will have no alarming code of rules or other guideposts to right conduct displayed in her schoolroom. She will act as the guidepost herself. She will discreetly lead the young lives intrusted to her by love and sympathy. A six-year-old child needs direction and instruction, and not punishment, as so many teachers believe. Then the teacher who loves and controls her pupils aright will have the confidence of her pupils. They will not fear her. They will not need to lie to cover up their misdemeanors. They will tell them to the teacher, because they know she will wisely counsel them. Fear being removed, truthfulness will naturally follow.

Lying for Gain

The pupil that has acquired the habit of lying to obtain the many things he wants is the most difficult to handle. This habit is usually the result of very poor home training, but in many instances the child resorts to falsehoods to obtain his ends in school, and the habit is begun after the child enters school. While all types of lying are pernicious, none is worse than the one which tempts a child to lie to gain some material end.

In many instances a pupil secures something from the teacher by means of a misrepresentation and the teacher is not aware of it, but later learns that the pupil has secured the coveted object by false methods. There is nothing left for the teacher to do, except to tell the child about his misrepresentation and request him not to repeat it. This must not be done in a faultfinding way, but as a means of instruction. Sometimes the misdemeanor may be of such proportions, that all that can be done is to give direct instructions against it; but when this becomes necessary, the teacher must do it in a way that will win the child’s confidence. Not a word nor look of criticism should escape the teacher. Her instruction should make plain to the child the evil results that will arise from such falsehoods. If the teacher is not careful she will make the child more evasive in his attempts to misrepresent. After that he will use all the tact he can, to keep his falsehoods hidden; so it becomes very imperative that the teacher give direct instructions with the utmost care. It is indispensable that she remain within the child’s confidence. It can not be emphasized too much, that but little can be done for a child in the way of direct or indirect instruction, if the teacher has lost the confidence of the offender.

Usually the teacher can detect from the child’s manner, that he is lying to obtain what he wants. In such a case the teacher can more easily apply an effective method and one that will in due time remove the habit from the child. Often the teacher can lead the child to the truth by a series of careful questions. Answers to the questions are the child’s gradual admission of the truth. These admissions can be drawn from the child by facial suggestion; that is, the teacher can approve by a pleased countenance that reply which she deems the truth and disapprove that reply which she deems a falsehood by merely assuming an unmoved countenance or expressing negation. Also, negative movements of the head, suggest, “No,” to the child when he is telling a falsehood and this suggested “No” will bring out the truth. The positive movement of the head consents to the truth when stated by the child.

CASE 50 (KINDERGARTEN AGE)

(1) Lying in order to accomplish a desired end. The following occurrence very nicely illustrates the method. A little girl had secured permission from her mother to visit the home of a young man who was doing some experiments in child psychology. While there he used her as a subject for an experiment. The experience pleased the little girl, and in a few days she wished to make another visit, but knew that her mother would not grant the privilege. The little girl went to the young man’s home without her mother’s consent. Upon arriving there the little girl suggested that they go into the kitchen. The experiment of a few days before had been performed in the kitchen. The experimenter knew the mother well enough to question whether the little girl had secured her mother’s consent. When he asked her if her mother had allowed her to come, she replied, “Yes,” but the young man saw at once that the child was lying and determined to get the truth without the child’s knowledge of his object or without forcing her to tell the truth as so many unwise teachers attempt to do, and fail.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Suggestion As a Remedy

The following is the exact conversation: The young man said, “Your mother allowed you to come the other day, did she not?” This he emphasized by a positive nod of his head. The little girl readily replied, “Yes.” Then the young man said, “But today your mother did not allow you to come? No, no.” This question he emphasized by a negative nod of his head. The little girl hesitated, and told her wavering falsehood. Her reply was, “Yes, she said I could go into the kitchen.” Again he asked his questions, emphasizing each by the proper motions of his head. To the last question, the little girl replied, “She did not say I could come today.” He had used the principle of leading suggestion, and had led the little girl to tell the truth. He did not change his attitude toward the child. He was firm and kind. She was old enough to understand the significance of the lesson and did not attempt to tell the young man another falsehood, and he had occasion to have the little girl about him almost every day.

COMMENTS

It is worth consideration, that to this tendency to misrepresent in order to secure an end or desire, teachers apply such crude and unskilled methods of prevention, they really force children to tell more falsehoods. It is urgent that a teacher should always study all cases of falsehood coming up and then with common sense approach them in such a way as to prevent, instead of intensify, the habit of lying.

(2) Lying in order to cover up a wrong act. Very much of what has been said regarding the method of dealing with very young children applies with equal force to older children, except that the older ones have more definitely formed ideas of what is right and wrong.

CASE 51 (SECOND GRADE)

Marking Desks

Miss Simons looked down the row of seats in the second grade room and saw that Forrest Short was drawing on his desk with his lead pencil. She walked back to his seat and saw that the drawing represented an apple. She said, “Forrest, how did this drawing of an apple get on your desk?”

Startled and abashed, Forrest whispered, “I don’t know anything about it.”

Miss Simons walked away and said no more.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Do not ask a child, who has done some misdemeanor, whether or not he did it; especially, if you already know that he did it.

Miss Simons should have said privately to Forrest: “I saw you drawing on your desk. These desks and this schoolhouse belong to everybody who lives near here. We can benefit all of them by keeping the desks and the entire room as neat and clean as possible. See if you can not get the marks off of your desk. I will show you how. We want the next child who uses it to find it just as nicely kept as you found it.”

COMMENTS

Miss Simons could reasonably expect nothing else than that Forrest would tell a falsehood when the truth would condemn him. Furthermore, she acted a lie herself if she pretended not to know how the drawing came to be on the desk. A teacher who wishes to foster truthfulness in a child will not wittingly tempt him to tell an untruth. Miss Simons made the untruth too easy. Had she assumed in talking with Forrest that he had made the drawing, he would have admitted it.

ILLUSTRATION

Drawing

Miss Cate, who was teaching the second grade in a village school, saw that Edward Marsh and Rolland Gray were both drawing on their tablets during the period when they should have been preparing their arithmetic lesson.

She said to Edward, “I see you are drawing. Have you finished your arithmetic problems, Edward?”

“Yes, Miss Cate,” he replied.

“Drawing is a good pastime when you have your lessons prepared,” said Miss Cate. “Here is a piece of paper and a model. Copy this for me as accurately as you can and I shall be pleased to see it when you have finished it.”

She then said to Rolland, “I see that you too are drawing; have you finished your arithmetic?”

“No, Miss Cate,” he said.

“Drawing is a fine, noiseless pastime,” she said, “but just now I wish you to do your problems in arithmetic. As soon as you have finished them, raise your hand and I will give you a good, easy model to draw from.” Both children went happily to work.

(3) Teaching untruthfulness. Many a teacher gives her pupils lessons in untruthfulness by practicing upon them what she considers to be harmless deceptions. It is a weak teacher who finds such aids to discipline necessary.

CASE 52 (THIRD GRADE)

It was Miss Weber’s first day of school in Roxbury, Missouri. She came as a new teacher from a nearby normal school.

Teacher Falsifies

In outlining her first day’s work the evening before, the words of her training teacher had been in her mind, “As the first day goes, so goes the year.”

“I’ll take the first five minutes tomorrow,” thought Miss Weber, “to tell the children what I hope from them. They will then be pretty sure to meet my expectations.”

After a cheery “Good morning, children,” she said, “I’m going to take a few minutes this morning to talk with you. I want you to be very good children this year. I’ve got eyes in the back of my head and when my face is turned away from you I can see what is going on back of me.”

Some of the pupils in her room actually believed this for about a week, when one day Jimmie Knox decided he would test Miss Weber’s “double eyes.” He had not studied his spelling lesson; so when the papers were exchanged for correction (his among them) and Miss Weber was writing some words on the board, he made another copy from his spelling book which lay open before him.

When the papers were returned the next morning Miss Weber said, “I was sorry to find out that Jimmie Knox could not be trusted while my back was turned.”

All eyes were on Jimmie while she went on to give a long talk on “Deceit,” bringing out such points as:

“A deceitful child is handicapped. Any boy who cheats is almost sure to be a liar and a thief also.”

“There is very little hope that a child who cheats will ever become a great and good man.”

Several days later Miss Weber said, “If you all get 100 in spelling today, I’ll be so proud of you I shall have to give you each a gold medal.”

“Oh, shall we have gold medals, Miss Weber?” asked one enthusiastic little boy.

“No, not really. You mustn’t believe everything I say, William.”

“Did you mean,” asked Jimmie, “what you said yesterday about cheating?”

Miss Weber paused a moment, then said, “That’s enough from you, Jimmie.”

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Make only such resolutions and statements at the beginning of the term as you know you will be able to carry out. If you should happen to make a remark that the children may be likely to interpret too literally, be sure to amend it immediately, so that your idea will be clear to them. Do not claim greater powers than you possess nor hope to prevent deception on the part of the pupils by practicing deceit upon them.

If you find out that a certain pupil has cheated in his work, give all the children a short talk, every word of which is constructive. That is, do not speak on the negative topic “Deceit,” but on the positive opposite virtue, “Honesty”; it will be much more effective. Illustrate each of your statements by an actual experience showing the desirability of possessing a strictly honest character.

COMMENTS

Miss Weber had the right idea when she said to herself that children will meet their teacher’s expectation of them, but she applied a wrong method to bring this about. It is not necessary to give a formal talk on what you expect in the way of behavior. Your every movement in the room should disclose your expectation and your confidence in the pupils.

Jimmie Knox should not have been made the target for Miss Weber’s talk on Deceit. She further made the mistake of expressing utter hopelessness for the child who deceives, as if his fault were an inherent wickedness, and, therefore, not to be remedied.

Jimmie Knox was not altogether to blame for his cheating. Miss Weber had challenged his act by saying that she could see what was going on even though her back was turned. His natural inquisitiveness led him to test her statement.

A teacher may never hope to have the confidence of her pupils if she says to them, even in a joking way, as Miss Weber did, “You must not believe everything I say.” Could she blame her pupils for doubting her word after making statements to them which even she herself admitted to be untrue?

Occasionally it is well to turn a class discussion in such a way as to have a direct bearing on a local situation, if this can be done without special allusion to any offender. The following story shows how this may be done. It also illustrates the method of throwing emphasis upon the positive virtue desired rather than upon the fault to be eliminated.

ILLUSTRATION (FOURTH GRADE)

Cheating

Miss Hancock, a teacher in the fourth grade of a small town in New York State, discovered from the results of two papers in arithmetic that one of her pupils had cheated.

The next morning an opportunity came in the history lesson to emphasize Lincoln’s honesty.

“He was so honest that when he was keeping a store as a young man in Illinois, he walked several miles one night to return two pennies to a woman whom he had overcharged for a purchase.

“It was upon such a characteristic that his whole public life and policy were founded and the world pays tribute to this quality when it celebrates his birthday.

“Now I have some quotations on honesty that I shall distribute to each one. By tomorrow morning when we review Lincoln’s life, you will have them memorized.”

CASE 53 (SIXTH GRADE)

Paper Wads

(4) Lying aggravated by teacher’s wrong method of dealing with case. Miss Graves was teaching in the sixth grade of a city school. One day a paper wad went “thud” against the blackboard behind her. Notwithstanding that she was hearing a class at the time, she sprang to her feet at once and said, as she gazed about the room, “Who threw that paper wad? I’m going to find out right now who threw it.” Thereupon she began at one side of the room, asking the children one after another in order, “Did you throw it? Did you? Did you?” etc.

She seemed surprised when every one of the pupils in the room had answered, “No, ma’am.” She said, “Someone has told a lie about this. I shall endeavor to find out who it is. The one who did it will be severely punished.”

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Do not question pupils in public as to whether or not they have done a certain misdeed. Simply keep a closer watch than before. Look at no one in particular, but lift your eyes a little above the heads of the pupils, so that you can watch what is going on without seeming to do so, and let your face show neither anger nor annoyance. Do not accuse anyone. Even after you think you know who is guilty, do not say you know; on the other hand, do not suggest in any way that you are not sure. If you are sure that a certain pupil is guilty, ask him to see you a moment after school. Then talk with him in a friendly way, smiling frequently, so he will be in the mood to confess. When he does confess, thank him for his admission and tell him you know he will not bother you any more. Treat him kindly after the interview.

COMMENTS

It takes more courage than ordinary children have to answer, “Yes,” when others are listening, to a question whether they have done wrong. After hearing a number of pupils answer, “No,” it is extremely unlikely that the culprit will be honest enough to answer “Yes.” The more the teacher threatens the wrong-doer the less likely she is to find out by public questioning which one he is. It is possible to handle a case so tactfully that there is no danger of leading the offender to be dishonest. Besides, leading him to confess his fault you can, by showing comradeship and understanding of the case, make him feel that you are treating him so fairly that he has no desire to annoy you further. Do not say much after his confession. Show by your smile and manner that you are satisfied with the child’s acknowledgment.

ILLUSTRATION (HIGH SCHOOL)

Throw Shot

Shot had been thrown in Prof. Lyon’s recitation room at Huron High School. He suspected that Paul Robinson was the offender and when he and Paul were alone together Prof. Lyon smiled and said, “Paul, there was some little shot or something rolling over the floor today. I want you to help me find where they came from. Wait a minute, let me show you what one of these shot looks like.”

While Prof. Lyon was feigning to look over the floor for one of the shot, Paul said, “O, I know what they look like.” Prof. Lyon smiled at the boy’s confession and dismissed him. Paul didn’t feel like throwing shot in Prof. Lyon’s room again, because of this considerate treatment.

10. Acquisitiveness

(1) Making collections of curiosities—Legitimate acquisition. Probably every person who reaches adult life has made collections of something or other during boyhood or girlhood. Stones, stamps, “memory buttons,” flowers, etc., all take their turn in the childish museum of curiosities. The wise teacher will utilize this tendency rather than try to suppress it.

CASE 54 (UNGRADED SCHOOL)

Disorder

The county superintendent of Tazewell County, Illinois, was visiting a rural school. The teacher, Mr. Owens, was nervous, and the children responded to his unusual manner with general agitation. When he called the grammar class to stand preparatory to going forward to the recitation seats, Andrew Willis accidentally knocked a stone off his desk. It fell upon the bare foot of a boy sitting just opposite to him. The boy gave a little yelp of pain and catching up his foot rocked to and fro a moment. Mr. Owens was more embarrassed than ever. His pupils liked him. He had encouraged them in their natural instinct to collect what seemed to them curious, useful or beautiful as they walked to and from school. He now glanced over the schoolroom, actually seeing for the first time how untidy many of the desks were. Stones, flowers, one clump of moss, one butterfly and oddly bent twigs and collections of leaves adorned the desks. He resolved to make some provision at once for keeping the desks clean.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Provide proper places, a cabinet or table where pupils may bring their treasures and where the various objects can be utilized in the nature study lessons. They can also often be used in the geography and history work and will add much to the interest of those subjects.

COMMENTS

The habit of seeing whatever comes within the range of vision is a good one and should be cultivated by the teacher. A love of flowers—a refining emotion—will usually follow persistent attention to them. For this reason it is well to acquaint children with their names, usual location, change through culture, etc. Much can also be learned from talking often about rock formations, leaves, etc. A teacher who cares to do so will find a way to make such collections instructive, and yet keep the discussion of them as well as the objects themselves in the proper place.

ILLUSTRATION (UNGRADED SCHOOL)

Nature Study

A few mornings after the visit of the county superintendent to his school Mr. Owens said to his pupils:

“In the southwest corner of the room I have placed a table. On this table we will put a collection of beautiful stones and curios of all sorts. When visitors come I can tell them that the pupils brought all of these things for our natural science table. On this you may place anything suitable which you find on the school ground, on the way to school, or which you already have on your desks.

“This will make more room for your books and the desks will look much better besides.

“If any one has anything in his desk which he does not care to put on our table, he should bring a cloth bag from home with a string attached to it so that he can tie it to the side of his desk. Or, if he prefers, he may bring it for the other children to see, then take it home.

“Just back of my desk here, where all of us can see them, I have placed this small table of vases in which to put all of our flowers.”

Neatness, with its attendant beneficial effect upon discipline, followed this new arrangement.

(2) Gambling—Acquiring dishonorably. Frequently the acquisitive instinct takes on a less innocent form. Then it becomes the teacher’s duty, not to suppress the instinct, perhaps, but to see to it that it is expended in ways that will leave no habits of dishonesty ingrained in the pupil’s character.

CASE 55 (FOURTH GRADE)

Marbles

Rattle-te-bang!—a big noise rolled all through the room where young Miss McGuire had charge of thirty fourth-graders. Everybody knew what caused the uproar, for the marbles immediately began to stream slowly in every direction over the schoolroom floor.

“Where did they come from?” was Miss McGuire’s first thought. She had not long to wait, for Lucius’ terror-stricken face was seen intently gazing at his teacher in anticipation of some further misfortune.

“Lucius, were those your marbles?” was her first question.

“Yes, ma’am,” timidly said Lucius, fearing that he might lose his treasures.

“Children, you may all pick up the marbles near you. Perry, you may pass down the aisles with the crayon box and collect them and bring them to my desk,” were Miss McGuire’s orders. After school she detained Lucius.

“Lucius, how did you get so many marbles?”

“I bought them with a nickel daddy gave me.”

“Surely not this box nearly full of marbles for a nickel.”

“Well, Walton gave me some.”

“Did any one else give you marbles?”

“Ye-e-es, some of the other boys.”

“Now, see here, Lucius; you’ve been playing for keeps, haven’t you?”

Lucius saw no way out but to admit the fact, though he knew it meant trouble.

“Lucius,” said Miss McGuire, “you are a little gambler, so you are; so are all these boys who play for keeps. I’m going to throw these marbles into the sewer and any others I get hold of. Now you go home and keep straight after this.”

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Miss McGuire’s procedure must be condemned from the moment she began her interview with Lucius; instead of her method the following is recommended:

“How did your marbles get away from you?” should be the first question. Put the boy entirely at ease if possible.

“What a fine lot of marbles you have. How do you keep them; your pockets are too small, aren’t they!”

“Now, I tell you—I have room in the bottom drawer of this desk for them. Put them in there and get them when you need them.”

Keep Score-card

Let the matter rest for that day. Next day, in a chatty fashion, get Lucius to tell about his games. Let him tell about playing for keeps. At a still later time begin giving him your ideas on gambling. Do not disclose the fact that you have seen the boys playing for keeps. Lay a foundation about stealing, leading up to getting something for nothing, and thus help the boy to draw his own inferences as to gambling.

Finally, insist that common conscience forbids gambling, and that all strong boys avoid it. Offer to keep records on a chart instead of keeping the marbles that formerly have been won. Next year be on hand with the records plan when the marble season opens and encourage competition for championship in marbles.

COMMENTS

Boys take up gambling with very few scruples. Even though some adults do not condemn playing marbles for keeps, teachers can be on the safe side only when they take a firm stand against it and institute a reform in a tactful way.

The chief interest in the sport is the exhibition of skill demonstrated by the winning of marbles. After a boy has a few marbles he finds no great delight in mere possession of a large number. Therefore, the cure for the gambling features of the game of marbles is to provide for due recognition of skill in some harmless fashion.

If you want the boys to talk about their habits and customs, all strenuous efforts at reform must be reserved until you have led the boys to see your viewpoint. Therefore, lead up to the point you wish to make with the boys in a way that will carry them along with you.

ILLUSTRATION (SIXTH GRADE)

Miss Henry was teaching in a St. Louis school and was face to face with the question of how to control the game of matching pennies; she followed out a new plan. Fortunately the policeman who was on the nearest beat was one of the best friends of the school children and was occasionally asked to step into a room and say a few words to them. He was greeted with enthusiasm, for he knew how to tell a story and how to teach a lesson on good conduct.

Policeman’s Story

Instead of faultfinding or even alluding to the boys’ misconduct Miss Henry asked Mr. Clanahan to describe briefly the careers of four boys whom he had watched as they grew up on St. Louis streets and who indulged in the several gambling games known to boys and men. None of the boys became successful and honored men. Following this talk the teacher kept a mild surveillance over the guilty boys. A few persisted in the practice; this she ignored for the time being. For those who would accept her plans she brought to school several new games; they could not fail to be interested in them because of the chance for skill and for definite records of achievement. These partly replaced the gambling games in interest. But Miss Henry rightly felt that displacing the game of matching pennies with other games did not in itself, and alone, fully solve her problem. The boys must understand why playing for keeps is wrong if the lesson was to safeguard them in any way from other gambling games. She therefore gave the school another talk soon after the policeman’s visit, and after the pupils had had time to think out for themselves the moral of his story.

Miss Henry recalled the story and asked, “Why should the boys’ gambling habits have anything to do with the failure of these men to ‘make good’? Who sees any harm in gambling?” Some of the boys didn’t see any harm in it and a short discussion followed, mostly by the children themselves, during which the thought was developed of taking something valuable from one’s fellows without giving back to him any just equivalent for the marbles, or money, or whatever had been taken.

“What sort of person do you like best yourselves, boys?” Miss Henry asked, when public sentiment in the class had reached a point where it seemed safe to ask so direct a question; “the man who gives you back good, square, full measure for your money or the one who gives you just as little as he possibly can, even nothing at all, if he dares to go so far as that?”

“Well, the principle is the same in matching pennies,” she continued, “and I’m just wondering if you wouldn’t have equally as much fun and feel a good deal more manly about it if you should keep the pennies you win until the game is finished and then re-distribute them and give back to each fellow all that belongs to him. Think it over a day or two and tell me your decision.” The boys finally agreed to Miss Henry’s proposition.

CASE 56 (EIGHTH GRADE)

Bicycles Won

Superintendent Rittenhouse had the problem of gambling in the eighth grade to deal with, because the county fair had been so conducted as to permit much semi-public gambling, in consequence of which there was talk about town sufficient to charge the atmosphere with interest in gambling. It turned out that Saturday afternoon, nine grammar room boys conducted several bicycle and foot-races, with a crude attempt at gambling attached to the whole affair. The story came out because Jay Belding had to turn over his bicycle to August Bachman, and the Belding family lodged a protest with the superintendent.

The next morning he entered the eighth grade room, called out the boys involved and put them through a series of questions. “Who planned this thing? Who got permission to use the race track? Who raced? Who put up bets? Who paid bets? How much money was involved in the bets?” and so on to the end of the chapter. The boys told the truth. When the grilling was over, he said, “You boys go home, tell your fathers all the facts and bring me at note tomorrow saying that the fathers will guarantee that you never will do this again. Each boy’s father must sign a note. When you hand me the note you may come to your room and not until then.”

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

A better plan is to propose to make such races, school affairs. Offer to plan with groups in any grade for small “stunts” as well as for the larger affairs. Have it understood that the school will help even ten boys to have a good time, on a suitable occasion. Put a bomb of disapproval under gambling by men in connection with sports. Show deepest disgust for the depraved natures of men who indulge in and practice it.

Entirely out of connection with any school event, explain simply and clearly why gambling is wrong. Be careful to make a clear distinction between the play which is entirely right in itself and the betting or gambling accompanying the play which is wholly wrong in principle.

COMMENTS

Mr. Rittenhouse, after getting the truth, should have followed the matter out in a sympathetic fashion. Several of the boys will be likely to forge the father’s name after composing the note. Some fathers will not relish giving such a guarantee as is required. They will send word to the teacher to keep the boys from gambling.

The better plan takes in the boys’ natural impulses to have novel fun and makes the school a continuous influence in their lives. If we avoid over-condemnation, the boys can be led out of a type of conduct which otherwise will be established as a vicious habit.

Resistance to the teacher’s advice is usually due to a conviction, warranted or unwarranted, that the child is being imposed upon. This conviction must be met by a kindness which restores confidence, or an explanation of conditions which shows the requirements to be reasonable.

ILLUSTRATION (SEVENTH GRADE)

Matching Pennies

Miss Starr had one pupil, a little Italian, who interested her greatly. He sold papers before and after school and had the sharpness and suspicion of character which much familiarity with hard conditions gives even a child. He resisted all her friendly advances with a “No-you-don’t” caution that both amused and nettled her.

One day ’Tonio indulged in a form of mischief at which he was an adept. He matched pennies with Grover Helm, the affluent son of the corner grocer. When they had been at it for about ten minutes, Grover was no longer affluent, and therefore he complained to Miss Starr.

“’Tonio wanted to match pennies and he got me into it, and I said I would just for fun, not for keeps. Now he has all my pennies and won’t give them back to me. Please make him give them back to me.”

“You two boys may stay after school, and we’ll talk about it then,” Miss Starr directed.

When the other pupils left ’Tonio considered the situation and decided that discretion was the better part of valor. He had often been severely whipped for matching pennies; he had no doubt that another beating was due for this offense.

“’Tonio, will you come up here?” Miss Starr’s voice sounded kind, but ’Tonio had experienced the honeyed tones of an authority, which has not yet captured its victim, before. He rose promptly, but instead of coming directly forward passed back of the rows of desks, and then suddenly bolted for the door and escaped, leaving Grover to tell his incriminating tale unchallenged.

The truant officer brought him in two days later, after a hard hunt. He looked pinched and hungry, but still defiant, and faced Miss Starr like a chased animal at bay.

“Grover, he began it,” was his only defense. “You should whip him, too.”

“No one has said anything about whipping. Did you think I was going to whip you? Is that why you ran away?”

“Don’t you whip?” ’Tonio asked.

“I never have, ’Tonio. Now, I should like to talk to you about matching pennies. I don’t know how it is done, even. You don’t need to be afraid. Will you stay tonight and talk to me? I don’t want to hurt you; I want to help you.”

’Tonio stayed that night, and they had a long talk. Miss Starr could not quite bring Tonio to her way of thinking; his inherent bent to gambling was too well ingrained for that. What she did do was to persuade him thoroughly, by the kindness of her manner, that she was his true friend. ’Tonio trusted her utterly from that day, and for love of her abstained from penny-matching and all other mischief in school. Miss Starr sighed because his regeneration was not more thorough than it was, for she heard sometimes of his misdeeds with the gang he belonged to; but in her own domain he was a loyal and helpful citizen. She had removed that distrust of authority which his former experiences had built up in him, and which was the cause of his resistance.

CASE 57 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Playing for Money

Champ Underwood and Virgil Rutherford were returning from a week-end visit at the home of an old friend. On the train they ran across Chancey Prime, only two years ago a school favorite and friend of the two travelers, but now a salesman for an automobile house.

“Hello, fellows. Glad to see you! Sit down! Whither wend ye?”

“On our way home after a week-end over at Bloomburg. How goes it with you?”

In ten minutes the cards were out. With some qualms of conscience Champ and Virgil laid down their dimes and took hands in the game. They saw no acquaintance on the train and expected nothing to come of it.

The boys reached home by noon. The next day the principal took the boys into his office at the end of the morning session and made the following speech:

“You spent Sunday at Bloomburg. You came home with Chancey Prime and were caught gambling on the train. It is also reported that you were with him all day Sunday and that some way the two of you spent $50 in having a good time, supposedly in gambling and the like. You know that we don’t stand for any of these things. I know your parents do a little of this sort of thing, but they gave me to understand that you are forbidden to indulge in gambling. You must each get up before the high school and state the facts as I have reviewed them, apologize and promise never to do these things again, or drop your membership in every high school club, society and team for the remainder of the year.”

To this the reply came:

“But the facts didn’t come straight to you. We didn’t do....”

“Never mind about denials. I have two first-class witnesses and there is no ground for a discussion. I want your answer immediately.”

After looking at each other a second the boys came to an agreement. “No, sir, we’re not guilty of all these charges. We won’t accept either penalty until our case is heard and properly dealt with,” said Virgil.

“Get your books; don’t return until you receive word from the superintendent,” was the final shot from the principal.

As the two soberly marched home, they enumerated the errors the principal had made as to the facts; they had not gambled except for a short time on the train; they had been with Prime only a short interval; their stay at Bloomburg had been spent according to school standards; their parents had given up parlor gambling two years before when they joined church; they were entirely willing to suffer a reasonable penalty when the actual facts were made the basis of judgment.

“Well,” said Champ, “it’s all up. I’m not going to make the next move, are you, old boy?”

“Not on your life. That monkey is also a fool. I won’t stir one peg until he crawfishes, not one foot,” was Virgil’s indignant response. They kept their agreement.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

The principal should go to the parents of these young men, lay the facts before them as he understands them and insist that each boy meet him privately the next day. At the interview the following questions are to be answered: “How did you spend the week-end?” “What are your convictions on gambling?” “What will be your conduct during the remainder of your school course in the matter of gambling?” Leave these questions on paper so that parents and son can fully discuss them.

Parent’s Duty

Thus throw the whole responsibility on parents and sons, making not one remark as to your course of action in case the answers are unsatisfactory. Listen to the boys as a friend and advocate, not as a judge. If either boy fails to play the man, secure from his father a verbal guarantee for his good conduct, in effect placing the boy on probation. Avoid harsh language in dealing with the boys. At the first interview draw out their endorsement of the school custom which prohibits gambling. If they seem blind to its evils, briefly run over the obvious facts, but it is preferable to stir up the parents to supply any needed information. Do not place the boys in a position where you must expel or suspend them if they refuse some unreasonable penalty.

COMMENTS

Credulity of rumors has led to a serious administrative blunder. One of the finest disciplinary devices is to induce a guilty person to state the facts relative to his misconduct. At the points where he is sorely tempted to alter the facts, a few penetrating questions will place him again on the right track.

Parents must be continually reminded that they share daily in the responsibility of keeping good order in the school. It takes four people to hold up a boy in the high school—a parent, a teacher, a chum and the boy himself.

Boys who know so clearly that they have overstepped the bounds of sound morals should be forced to solve the problem. Put it up to them to make adjustments and to take a stand for the right regardless of any penalty that might be devised.

(3) Stealing. Though the habit of stealing is not so frequent as lying, among school children, yet it is of such widespread prevalence that it needs careful consideration. It is true that many in this group of offenders leave off the habit when they grow older—that is, outgrow it; still there are others who become habitual thieves when older and finally are detected and remanded to some penal institution. One form of stealing is known as kleptomania, an abnormal disposition to steal. This will not be discussed here, more than to say that a child who is a kleptomaniac should not be kept in a public school, but placed under a private tutor who can give especial and continual attention to the cure of his habit or, more properly speaking, his malady. He should be required to do or make something for the person whom he robs, every time, something that will replace that which he wrongfully took from them.

Motives for Stealing

The motives that prompt a young child to steal may be many. Likewise the occasions that make it possible for a child to steal may be numerous. A child may learn to steal because he has not been given sufficient food of different varieties, and in order to satisfy his hunger, he may have acquired the habit of stealing. He may have a liking for gaudy articles and because this craving is not satisfied, he begins to steal those articles that please his fancy. Playmates may have taught him to take what does not belong to him. Parents may have very loosely conceived notions on these matters and thereby teach their children, by example, to steal.

However, it seems that the motives or causes for pilfering can have little to do with the methods of prevention. Then, whatever the motives or causes for stealing may be, one thing is certain—the method of treatment need not be changed. At the outset the teacher must remember that the law of suggestion may play a great part in diminishing or increasing the tendency to pilfer. The unthoughtful teacher many times increases the tendency to “take things” in her room when in reality she is trying to prevent it. Her idea is that nothing shall lie before the children to tempt them to take what is not theirs. She locks every drawer in her room. She does it, too, in the presence of her pupils; she is careful to leave nothing valuable on her desk. If a child brings her a fine, luscious apple or orange, or a bit of candy, she at once secretes it in one of the mysterious drawers. Little does she think she is cultivating a tendency, not exactly to steal, but to peep into those secretive places; that act, if ever performed, will be the first step toward taking what is not theirs. For the child that must sneak to get a look into a forbidden place, it is a wrong to satisfy that longing; and pilfering easily attaches itself as a kindred wrong.

From this, the teacher must not conclude that to keep pupils from pilfering, she must leave things lying about carelessly; that would be going to the other extreme of placing temptation before them. A happy medium is needful. To give the methods of a rural teacher of many years’ experience, who never was troubled by pupils’ stealing, will, no doubt, be placing the situation before the teacher so it may be understood. This teacher did not make it a practice to lock drawers, desks and cabinets. When something of value was given her, she laid it upon her desk. Apples, oranges, candy and money could be found on the desk, almost any time. She never entertained the least fear that something might be taken. Her pupils knew how she felt about it. They could see her attitude in her actions, consequently they never took anything that did not belong to them.

When evening came, she would very unassumingly take any articles that had been given her, implying that she was not removing them because she feared they might be stolen. On the other hand, she often forgot to take money from her desk and it lay there over night, but she never worried a moment about it. She always found it in the morning, just where she had left it. She trusted her pupils and they trusted her. She was honest, so were they. Sometimes a very amiable pupil would remark, “Miss Jenkins, what would you do if some one were to take the money from your desk?” Invariably there shone on her face that confident smile of trust in every human heart and she would say, “Why, my dear, I do not need to think about that. I have no pupils that would steal anything.” Every word she uttered rang with trust and confidence. There need be no wonder that she had no pupils that stole.

She would send any one of her pupils to her home to get any article she wanted or to the store with money to buy some trifle for her. She trusted them in every way; she avoided that suspicious look and action that so many teachers have. No trait of the teacher will reproduce itself so quickly in the lives of those whom she teaches as the trait of trustfulness.

This teacher, once in a while, gathered her flock about her and told them stories. One story may have been about Eskimos, told without any attempt at moralizing; the next story referring to politeness; then she would deftly fill in a story about the wrong there is in taking things that do not belong to one. She avoided the harsh terms of pilfering or stealing. She taught the children to ask for what they wanted. They did not note that she was directly teaching them not to steal. Added to her many stories along various lines of conduct was a simple life of trust and confidence. There would be fewer thieves behind bars, could every first grade teacher look with trust and confidence upon the boys and girls that come under her care.

CASE 58 (FIRST GRADE)

Of Flower

(4) Stealing—Acquiring dishonorably. Cora Krebs was in the first grade. She dearly loved her teacher, Miss Bowman. It seemed to the little girl that Miss Bowman’s face was perfectly beautiful, her voice delightful and her smile worth securing, even at a great sacrifice.

Myron Ware often brought flowers from his mother’s large garden to present to Miss Bowman. She always thanked him so kindly and cared for the flowers so tenderly that Cora longed for an opportunity to give something beautiful to her teacher. Mrs. Krebs, her mother, had no flowers. Cora’s best loved treasure was her character doll. She had decided to give this doll to her teacher, but on second thought she knew that Miss Bowman was too big to care for a doll. How often she had thought of the joy it would be to give something fine to her teacher, only she herself knew.

One morning, Cora walked to school behind Myrtle Dean, a ten-year-old girl, who was taking a beautiful rose to school. When Cora first saw the rose, she thought, “Oh, how I wish I had that rose to give to Miss Bowman.” With this thought in mind, she kept close to Myrtle, eying the rose longingly.

When they reached the schoolhouse, Myrtle hung her hat on a hook in the hall, stuck the stem of the rose through the ribbon on the hat and hurried on with one of the girls into the little library opening into the hall. As soon as the girls closed the library door, Cora snatched the rose from its place and dodged into the first grade room, where she presented it to Miss Bowman, who graciously received it.

Myrtle hunted for her lost rose, and as soon as school began, asked her teacher’s permission to go to the various rooms and inquire if any one had seen it. Of course, she wanted the fun of going into the various rooms more than she wanted the lost flower. When she entered the first grade room and asked if Miss Bowman would inquire if anybody had seen her red rose, Miss Bowman would not have suspected that the one given her by Cora was the lost one, had not Cora blushed and nervously opened and shut her hands and in every way appeared guilty. The sight of Cora, thus confused, recalled to Miss Bowman’s mind that the child had given her just such a rose, so she said,

“Cora, where did you get this rose?” holding it up before the school.

“From home,” answered Cora.

“I saw her standing in the hall looking at me when I put it into my hat, and she didn’t have any rose in her hand,” said Myrtle.

“Cora, are you sure you brought it from home?” asked Miss Bowman, looking at Cora accusingly.

“Yes, ma’am,” said Cora.

“Let me see it,” said Myrtle. “I pulled the thorns off of mine as I walked to school. Has this one thorns?”

Miss Bowman examined it and found it had not. She gave it to Myrtle and said:

“Shame, shame, Cora, you have done an awful thing. You have stolen and then lied about it. You may stay after school.”

A very tearful, sad, little girl was whipped by her teacher that evening after school. The whipping cured Cora, not only of stealing, but also of ever caring again to give her teacher a present.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Miss Bowman should have gotten a description of Myrtle’s rose when she first inquired about it, and then seeing that Cora looked guilty, she should have said: “I am so glad that you thought of me and gave me this beautiful flower, but I shall be all the happier to have you give it to Myrtle now, and when you feel like it, tell me all about how you got it.” Whether or not Cora confesses at once, Miss Bowman should have a private talk with her later in which she tells her how certain things come to belong to certain people and therefore must not be purloined.

COMMENTS

Stealing, if not skillfully handled, leads to lying. To punish a child for either offense, without an attempt to teach him to despise such an act, really adds to his other crimes, fear, deceit and hatred for the one who punishes. Children should be taught to respect property rights at school, since such education is so often neglected at home. To this end, always be careful to respect the property rights of the children when dealing with them.

ILLUSTRATION (SECOND GRADE)

Property Rights

Miss Ward realized that pilfering and abuse of the property of others arises from lack of education, so she assigned certain days to talk of property rights, using concrete examples like the following:

“Do you see this pretty bow of ribbon on Frieda’s head? How did it come to be here? Whose pencil is this? May I use it?” She made a list of the possessions of some of the children, as named by themselves. The unfairness of stealing was clearly shown by asking, “Would it be right for any one else to take and use these things? Why not?”

These lessons gave the children a prejudice against stealing.

CASE 59 (THIRD GRADE)

Pencil

Horace Brock had a new, red lead pencil. Even Miss Culver, the teacher, had noticed its brightness as he wrote his morning spelling lesson. But when the arithmetic preparation period arrived, his pencil was gone. He searched through his desk carefully, then put up his hand, when Miss Culver said, “What is it, Horace?”

“My new pencil is gone.”

“It must be about your desk,” she said, as she went to help him look for it. They failed to find it.

Two days passed and nothing was seen of the missing pencil. In the meantime several other pupils had bought new pencils just like it from the new assortment at the drug store.

On the third day Lettie Crandall, who sat just in front of Horace, had a shining red pencil.

At recess words were passed between Horace and Lettie somewhat as follows:

“That’s my pencil you had this morning.”

“It is not.”

“I know it is; I marked mine.”

“I marked mine, too.”

Miss Culver stepped up and said:

“How did you mark yours, Lettie?”

Confused and surprised, Lettie hesitated and then said, “I sharpened it long.”

“How did you mark yours, Horace?” Miss Culver asked.

“It had three little tacks to hold the tin that the rubber is fastened in, onto the wood. Well, I took mother’s hammered brass punch and made little dents all around there just for fun. She’s got my pencil. I saw the dents in it.”

“Let me see the pencil,” said Miss Culver.

She compared it with other pencils and saw at once that it was unmistakably marked just as Horace had said. She therefore felt sure it belonged to him, and said:

“I’ll punish Lettie for stealing and lying.”

Lettie was whipped after school, not only in order to deter her from stealing, but also as an example to other children. She was ostracised by the girls for over a week, and in fact lost forever the intimate association she had had with one little classmate. Miss Culver understood this and believed it was just punishment for Lettie.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Return the pencil to Horace and tell him that you will attend to the matter of Lettie’s conduct. Have a private talk with Lettie, finding out just why she took the pencil, rather than ask at Lettie’s home to have one bought. Have a talk with Lettie’s mother, telling her of Lettie’s temptation and suggesting to her, as an aid in teaching property rights to her children, to let each child have his own pencil, eraser, etc. Let them even ask each other for a sheet of tablet paper, when one child needs to borrow from another; to let each of the toys belong to individual children, not to the group; often to call the attention of the children to ownership and its attendant rights.

At school explain to the pupils the difference between public and private property.

COMMENTS

Children who have no regard for each other’s property rights at home, who wrest by force from each other the pencils, books, rulers, etc., which they desire, will carry these practices into school, where they will be branded as thieves. The teacher should coöperate with the parents of such children to teach them respect for property rights and abhorrence of stealing.

ILLUSTRATION (FOURTH GRADE)

Pocket Knife

Bernard Howe brought a new pocket knife to school. It was large and heavy; in fact, a knife, cork-screw, screw-driver, tack-puller and many other things combined—a veritable little tool chest in itself.

With pride he showed it to the boys, who admired it to his satisfaction. One after another borrowed it. At the closing hour of school it was gone.

In tears, Bernard told Miss Bushnell, his teacher, of his loss. She suspected it had been taken by one of the boys. She kept Bernard after school and asked where he got his knife. He said:

“Paw works fur Cushman (a contractor) and they are buildin’ a new home on Park Street. The other day Paw found this knife in the buildin’ where somebody dropped it out of his pocket. Paw picked it up and shoved it into his pocket, quick, and brought it home. Yesterday Jerry (Bernard’s older brother) sneaked it out of Paw’s coat that was hangin’ up. Last night it fell out of Jerry’s pocket when he took off his clothes, and I found it on the floor this morning. I know Jerry will lick me fur not givin’ it back to him, and Paw will lick me ’cause I’ve lost it. Some feller stole it from me, I bet you.”

Miss Bushnell was shocked at this revelation of Bernard’s home training.

The next day she kept the boys in and said: “Bernard had a knife here that didn’t belong to him. He must find it if possible. It has somehow gotten lost. I will be very grateful to the boy who helps us to find it. As soon as it is found, please bring it to me, for I feel very anxious about it.”

That afternoon Parke Dabney brought the knife to Miss Bushnell, who returned it to Bernard, believing that some of the boys stole it from him. She then planned talks and stories on property rights which would be a lesson to all of the boys.

CASE 60 (SEVENTH GRADE)

Lunches

Hapgood Cummings was the son of a wealthy merchant in Trenton, New Jersey. He was the only child, and, accordingly, had been over-indulged at home. Now in this, the seventh grade, he was looked upon by the rest of the boys as a leader.

As several of the children in the school lived outside of the city limits, they brought their lunches. One morning Hapgood said to a crowd of boys in the school yard, “I bet I can carry off a stunt that the rest of you can’t do.”

“What’s that?” came the response of his followers.

“I bet I can slip a lunch every recess from the dressing-room and no one will be the wiser.”

“I dare you to do it.”

“All right.”

Hapgood asked to be excused from the room during the morning and took the opportunity to empty a lunch box, which looked especially tempting, into his pocket. At recess he said, “Look here, fellows. Don’t you wish you were me?” At that he pulled a sandwich out of his pocket and attacked it as if he had not eaten in days. His friends enviously looked on.

The next day he was equally successful and correspondingly admired and envied. After the third offense, Miss Nichols said, “Will the boy who has taken a lunch from this dressing-room for the past three mornings, please stand?”

Not a motion was made by anyone in the room. Hapgood sat rigidly still.

Not exactly sure what step to take next, Miss Nichols said, “If anyone knows who took these lunches, he will help me by telling me.”

That noon a little girl who wanted to do as her teacher said told on Hapgood.

At the beginning of the afternoon session, Miss Nichols said, “Hapgood Cummings, why didn’t you tell me you stole the lunch from the dressing-room? Don’t you know you were telling a lie by not standing this morning?”

Hapgood had learned one thing at home: never to talk back, so he thought, instead.

Misinterpreting his silence for meanness, Miss Nichols added, “You are disgraced in the eyes of the room, Hapgood. You may stay after school one hour every day, for one week.”

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Never urge the children to tell on one another until all other resources have been exhausted. After assuring yourself who the culprit is, talk to him privately in such a manner as this:

“Hapgood, for several mornings lunches have been taken from the dressing-room,” and since you know the boy to have been truthful in all other dealings with him, say, “Do you know anything about this?”

(On the other hand, if you deal with a boy who has lied on several previous occasions, say, “Every evidence in this case points to you. You can not wriggle out of it in any way.” Then proceed to tell him why you know he is guilty, giving him no chance to defend himself.)

Knowing that Hapgood is a spoiled child and has never been put on his own responsibility, say, “Hapgood, you know you were not playing fair with those boys whose lunches you took. Supposing you had to go without anything to eat, how would you feel?”

“Now, Hapgood, I know you didn’t think what a serious matter it was when you did this, so I am not going to say anything about it to the rest of the pupils. I am going to treat you like the honorable boy that I know you want to be, but I expect you to be honorable hereafter.”

COMMENTS

No boy is going to respond to such a command as Miss Nichols gave when she said, “Will the boy who has taken a lunch from the dressing-room for three mornings please stand?” Even if he has stolen, he does not want to be treated as a thief, and the other children do not want to be known as “tattlers.” By your request, you are only making matters worse. Any respect the children may have had for Miss Nichols was seriously weakened when she appealed to someone in the room to tell on the boy who stole the lunches.

One can never expect to appeal to a boy’s better self by telling him he is a liar. The boy showed he was well-bred when he refused to talk back to Miss Nichols.

ILLUSTRATION (SEVENTH GRADE)

Money

When Miss Langly began to teach in the seventh grade in the foreign district of a large city, she found out that Leonardo Coppetelli, a twelve-year-old boy in her room, had the reputation among his schoolmates of being a thief. She was bent on blotting out this stain in his character, and knowing that if it were not destroyed he would probably go through life with this stigma ever upon him, she decided to win his confidence.

She had not been in the neighborhood many days when she heard that Leonardo had stolen five dollars from a corner grocery. Immediately she called upon the proprietor, who was an American, and said:

“How do you do, Mr. Johnson. I am a teacher in the Douglas School. I have heard that Leonardo Coppetelli stole five dollars from you last night. I have come to ask that you will not cause his arrest. I believe if you will allow me to forward the money Leonardo stole from you, I can help the boy so that he will not want to steal any more.”

Mr. Johnson and Miss Langly talked for some time, when Miss Langly finally gained her point.

The next day she took pains to have a long talk with Leonardo, the trend of which was as follows:

“Leonardo, I heard you talking to the boys yesterday about spending money. Would you like a chance to earn some? I have an uncle in business near here who is looking for an errand boy.”

“I have been talking with Mr. Johnson, Leonardo. He is not going to arrest you this time for taking his money from him. I have made him promise to say nothing more about it. I told him I believed you would be willing to earn the money if you had a chance and would pay him back.”

“Do you think you could get me a job?”

“Come with me now. Tell your mother Miss Langly wants you to go on an errand with her. We shall call on my uncle and see what he has for you.”

The result was that Leonardo went to work every afternoon, was thus kept out of mischief and learned so to respect Miss Langly’s opinion that she became an influential factor in his life.

CASE 61 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Cecelia Cortwright was a student in the high school of a suburban town. She was not known as a popular girl, but was liked by all who knew her.

One morning Mr. Williams, the principal of the school, made the following announcement:

Check

“A very grave thing has happened this morning. A check has been taken from the pocket of a coat which hangs in the east dressing-room. Fortunately, it was not endorsed. The affair will be brought to a speedy close if the person who took this check will report in my office before the close of the session today; otherwise a thorough investigation will have to be made.”

School closed that day without any clue to the culprit. Several days passed. In the meantime, the check had been illegally endorsed and cashed at a local grocer’s. When turning in the check to be cashed at the bank, he was informed that the check had been forged, as the legal endorsee had stopped payment on the note.

The grocer immediately identified the girl as Cecelia Cortwright and public exposure at school soon followed.

Although Miss Cortwright was not suspended from school, she suffered the same injurious consequences which such a disgrace can bring. Shunned by her friends, looked upon with question by her teachers, she was in every sense of the word an outcast. When she could stand it no longer, she left school to clerk in a store in the city.

CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT

Make a thorough investigation before announcing a theft before a body of students. Publicity should be your last resource. Wait several days, if necessary, until the affair has had time to circulate among the students. It often happens that by observing these precautions the principal will have the whole matter laid before him without any particular effort on his part.

When the guilty one is found, take him into your trust; treat him as if he were a man twice as big as he is. Privately tell him that his act is to be looked upon with the gravest concern. Do not question his motive, but consider together how reparation can be made.

COMMENTS

Theft in a school demands delicate handling by those in authority. It so often occurs that the home training of a child leads him to have little sense of moral responsibility. To pry into his motive and publicly reveal his crime is often so to undermine the offender’s self-respect that the results are disastrous.

ILLUSTRATION (HIGH SCHOOL)

Mr. Arnold, principal of a large city high school, was informed by several girls one morning that their lunch money had been repeatedly taken from their coat pockets.

Money

Mr. Arnold asked the girls to wait for several days; by that time he would probably have some light on the affair. In the meantime, he asked the head of the lunchroom if any pupil had been eating his lunch there the past three days who had never done so before. Several were named.

He then asked the janitor to watch the dressing-rooms during the school session. The teachers who had had charge of the assembly-room the past three days were asked to report the name of any girl who had repeatedly asked permission to leave the room. The three sources pointed to a certain little girl who was known to come from a poor family where no thought was given to proper training of the children.

Incidentally in a conversation with the girl, Mr. Arnold asked her to stop in his office the last period of the day. Before the interview was over, he had, through this effort, secured the whole story from the child.

“I never have any money of my own for a hot lunch. One day when I was in the dressing-room I happened to think, ‘Why not take money from the pockets of the girls who never know what it is to be hungry for something good to eat?’”

“I am very glad you have told me this,” said Mr. Arnold. “The matter will go no farther than this office. It is an affair between just you and me. Mrs. Arnold wants someone to take care of the children in the afternoon after school. Wouldn’t you like to earn some money? Well, come over to our house with me and talk it over with Mrs. Arnold. When you have earned enough money to pay back what you have spent, I shall return it to the girls and they need never know who took the money.”

END OF PART I

INDEX

Adenoids, 58

Approval, 51, 53, 55, 58, 61, 63, 92, 103, 108, 132, 137, 139, 140, 147, 161, 171, 181, 190, 201, 210, 213, 215, 222, 235, 244, 247, 268, 272, 294, 303

Acquisitiveness, 309

Athletics, aid in discipline, 96

- cheating for sake of, 284, 289

- fights in, 249

Attention, desire to attract, cause of misconduct, 23, 50

Authority, excessive use of, 81, 94, 95

Awkwardness, 61, 141, 143, 148

Bluffing by teacher, cause of disobedience, 121

Bullying, 233
Busy work, 54, 171, 182
Card-playing, 115
Carelessness, 83

Cheating, on examination, 269

- how provoked, 268
- in recitation, 273
- sentiment against, 269, 282

Choice and disobedience, 31
Class rivalry, 253
Cleanliness in school building, 76
Cloaks and overcoats, 79
Clumsiness, 140, 148
Collections of curios, 70, 236, 310, 311

Commands how to give

- avoid repetition, 55
- be alone with child, 60
- be near the child, 50
- what the child wants to do, chose, 51
- privately, 103
- rights of pupil to be conserved, 93
- secure attention, 55
- speak intelligibly, 53
- time to be opportune, 72

Community, understanding conditions in, 43
Competition leading to fighting, 249
Conceit, 192

Confession, by pupils, 73, 163, 212, 242, 294, 302, 308, 309, 341

- by teacher, 124

Confidence, 31, 32, 52, 60, 68, 71, 85, 89, 96, 105, 116, 121, 150, 167, 196, 201, 209, 212, 266, 299

Constructive treatment, special features of

- courtesy, 53, 191
- dealing with whole situation, 101, 142, 148
- enlisting a pupil group, 79
- explaining how to act, 79
- impartiality, 108

- knowing the pupil, 51, 52, 58, 59, 63, 87, 108, 131, 142, 151, 156, 176, 179, 186, 194, 200, 209, 212, 218, 226, 339

- plan large, 91, 97

- privacy in interview, 60, 96, 109, 119, 191, 215, 252, 302, 332, 340

- quietness of movement, 50
- reform of teacher, 95, 102, 124, 288
- short assignments, 56
- time opportune, 175, 177, 241, 242, 252
- willingness of pupil considered, 60

Coöperation, initiative in, 45, 50, 51, 60, 62, 63, 65, 67, 70, 71, 74, 79, 81, 82, 87, 91, 96, 98, 103, 108, 114, 119, 124, 142, 149, 158, 160, 165, 166, 167, 171, 181, 182, 190, 198, 201, 203, 209, 210, 213, 222, 231, 241, 243, 256, 262, 265, 282, 313, 317, 320, 337

Crying, 257

Dancing, 111

Defamation of a teacher, causing disobedience, 65

Defying teacher, 69, 70, 73, 99, 101, 106, 111, 123, 168, 173, 180, 183, 189, 195, 199, 202, 208, 220

Desk order, 77
Destruction of property, 89, 254
Discipline, kinds of, 19
Disciplinarian, description of, 105

Discipline, what it is, 16

- why necessary, 13

Dislike for school, 158, 162

Disobedience, causes of, 41

- due to commands impossible to obey, 56

- that infringe personal rights, 93
- that are inopportune, 72
- unintelligibly stated, 53

- due to community conditions, 44
- community sentiment, contravened, 110
- due to defective motor functions, 61
- due to faultfinding, 89
- due to imitation of others, 69
- due to inattention, 55
- and instincts, 41
- nature of, 30
- due to parents, 42, 49, 65
- due to pleasure-seeking, 117
- due to pupils’ conspiracy, 106
- due to rules overemphasized, 76

- due to teacher’s suspicious attitudes, 42, 59, 83

- due to unregulated independence in the child, 86

- wilful, 49

Disputing with teacher, 123, 133, 199, 200, 211

Disrespect for teacher, 187

Drawing, as busy work, 303

- provoking discord, 74

Eating during school hours, 59

Examinations, cheating at, 269

- correct view of, 271
- fear of, 264
- plans for, 277, 282
- questions for, 270, 272
- when to give, 271

Exhibits at school, 70, 236, 310, 311

Expectation, 51, 58, 61, 62, 65, 79, 80, 85, 88, 92, 96, 104, 133, 137, 183, 231, 252

Faultfinding, 62, 66, 78, 89, 100, 141, 159, 173, 183, 215, 225, 234, 250, 261, 329

Fear, and cheating, 269

- and discipline, 259
- instinctive, 255
- and examinations, 264, 284
- and the lie, 297
- in recitation, 264
- and stubbornness, 180

Fidgets, 134, 142, 150

Fifth and Sixth Grades

- disrespect, 197
- gambling, 315
- impudence, 206, 210
- lying, 307
- obedience, 65
- stubbornness, 172, 178

Fighting, due to accidental situation, 236

- due to competition, 249
- due to ridicule, 239
- Thomas Hughes’ advice on, 96

First and Second grades

- crying, 257
- disrespect, 189
- fighting, 236
- ill-temper, 182, 187
- indifference to school, 159
- lying, 300, 301
- muscle training, 144
- noise, 136
- obedience, 49
- quarreling, 225, 229, 231
- refusal to recite, 256
- sickness a cause of backwardness, 155
- stealing, 327, 330
- stubbornness, 170

Folding papers, First and Second Grades, 56
Friendship not won by force, 67
Gambling, 115, 312
Games in acquiring motor control, 148
Gymnasium, promoting use of, 149

Habit, of crying, 258

- of quarreling, 230

Hair-pulling, 203

Helping pupil in study, 103, 105

High School, cheating by pupil, 281

- by teacher, 284

- fear, 264, 267
- fighting, 249
- gambling, 320
- impudence, 217
- indifference, 167
- laughing, 193, 194
- nervousness, 264
- obedience, 89
- stealing, 338
- truancy, 167

Home study, 77, 87
Humor and discipline, 215
Ideals, false and perverted, 24

Ignoring misconduct, 142, 196, 200, 205, 238, 293

Ill-temper, 182

Imagination, use of in discipline, 184

- and lying, 295

Imitation, and bodily action, 63

- cause of misconduct, 23, 69
- aid in discipline, 184
- provoking impudence, 206

Impudence, 199, 207, 211, 213

Inattention, 55

Independence in the child causing disobedience, 86

Indifference as cause of disorder, 157
Inhibition and discipline, 21
Injured child, sympathy for, 258

Instincts, classification of, 129

- relative to discipline, 13, 17, 19, 20, 21
- and disobedience, 30
- and fear, 255
- function of, 129

Interruptions, 61

Interviews, 34, 52, 60, 62, 63, 68, 84, 86, 87, 88, 92, 96, 101, 112, 113, 114, 119, 132, 155, 174, 175, 177, 191, 215, 222, 232, 242, 251, 288, 302, 313, 320, 322, 332, 336

Joking the teacher, 205

Kindergarten, see First and Second Grades

Laboratory as an instrument of discipline, 167

Laughing in school, 72, 74, 75, 99, 193, 194, 234

Laziness, noise, clumsiness and fidgets as causes of disorders, 130

Lighting of a schoolroom, 154
Literary societies, troubles with, 106
Lunches, stealing of, 334

Lying, to conceal, 301

- inquiry into, 212
- for gain, 298, 300
- and gambling, 313
- and the imagination, 295
- kinds of, 297
- provoked by teacher, 67, 292, 303, 307
- and stealing, 329, 335
- teacher practices, 59, 288, 304

Mannerisms of teacher, 102
Marbles, gambling with, 312
Marking desks, 301
Matching pennies, 319
Mischief maker, 98
Money stolen, 337, 338, 340

Motor functions, defective, causing disobedience, 61

Noise, 94, 135, 143

Nervous child, 134

Obedience, factors making for, 38

- Fifth and Sixth Grades, 65
- First and Second Grades, 49
- formal, 34
- High School, 89
- intelligent, 36
- kinds of, 33, 186
- public expects, 38
- pupils expect to obey, 39
- relations to character building, 29
- relation to school efficiency, 27
- Seventh and Eighth Grades, 76
- stages in development of, 33
- Third and Fourth Grades, 56

Observing children, 176

Order in schoolroom, 76, 135

Oversensitiveness, of pupil, 214

- of teachers a cause of disrespect, 189

Paper wads, throwing, 219, 307

Parental, aid in keeping order, 116

- responsibility for pupils’ good behavior, 165

Parents, causing a boy to tease, 240

- defaming teacher, a cause of disobedience, 65

- leading families, dealing with, 70
- provoking disobedience, 41, 86
- provoking impudence, 206
- provoking indifference to school, 159
- provoking quarrels, 228
- provoking stubbornness, 172
- responsibility in keeping order, 323
- teacher visiting, 67, 68, 158, 228, 322

Passing quietly, 137

Pencil, dropping, 135

- snatching, 187

Personal remarks, impudent, 190

- rights of pupils, infringement of, 93

Pertness, 198

Physical conditions causing misconduct, 23, 61, 131, 134, 141, 143, 148

Play supervised, 226, 230, 317
Pleasure-seeking causing disobedience, 117
Preparation to teach, defective, 121
Prohibitions provoking disorder, 99, 111
Promise, making, to pupils, 109
Public opinion disregarded, 110

Punishment, apology, 321

- corporal

- boxing ears, 276
- requesting right to use, 94
- shaking, 50

- whipping, 66, 68, 78, 89, 93, 163, 164, 172, 173, 195, 202, 211, 218, 261, 263, 319, 332

- detention after school, 73, 151, 190, 230, 241, 260, 336

- discipline not dependent upon, 17
- grade lowered, 277
- ineffective, 135, 141, 161
- loss of privileges, 249, 321
- provoking disobedience, 89
- for quarreling, 224
- school work, as, 90
- suspension, 317, 282

Punning, 200

Paper scattered, 49, 77, 80, 260

Quarreling, from spite, 228

- on school grounds, 225

- on way to school, 229

Quarrelsomeness, bullying and fighting, 223

Questioning pupils about misconduct, 73, 90, 99, 213, 234, 273, 275, 276, 292, 301, 307, 317, 321, 335

Reasons, failure to comprehend cause of misconduct, 22

- given with commands, 35, 36

Refusal, to do home work, 87, 88

- to go to school, 87

- to recite, 256

Responsibility, 84, 86
Retardation of a pupil, 67, 150
Ridicule provoking fighting, 239
Rights of child as to playthings, 313

Ringleader, dealing with, 52, 70

- discovering, 98, 119

Rivalry between student groups, 106

Rules, over-emphasis of, causing disobedience, 76, 81

Rural School, special problems, 69, 76, 98, 140, 159, 180, 181, 192, 217, 229, 273, 276, 310, 327, 330

Schoolroom conditions related to discipline, 157

Self-preservative instinct, cases of discipline arising from, 129

Seventh and Eighth Grades

- bullying, 240, 246
- cheating, 276, 279
- clumsiness, 140
- disrespect, 198, 200
- fighting, 240, 246
- gambling, 316, 318
- impudence, 211
- indifference, 166
- noise, 140
- obedience, 76
- stealing, 334, 337
- strained eyes a cause of disorder, 150
- stubbornness, 180
- truancy, 163

Shot-throwing, 309
Sickness of child prevents study, 154
Slow pupil, 64, 132
Sneering, 65
Snowballing, 236
Social grounds for discipline, 93
Social impulses, how to control, 111
Socializing the individual, 14
Slouching, 57
Smartness, 190

Special methods a help in discipline, 53, 54, 55, 112, 144, 303

Spit-balls, throwing, 219, 307
Stammerer, assisting the, 248
Stammering as cause of fighting, 246

Stealing, motives for, 324

- money, 337, 338

- provoked by teacher, 83, 325

Strained eyes a cause of disorder, 150
Strike of students, 106
Stubbornness, 169, 180

Study room discipline, 59, 61, 69, 72, 94, 99, 104, 151, 194

Substitution, 52, 60, 62, 71, 91, 96, 109, 112, 149, 165, 166, 167, 176, 185, 191, 201, 218, 225, 228, 231, 235, 236, 237, 238, 241, 247, 251, 253, 258, 267, 313

Suggestion, 51, 52, 63, 64, 79, 80, 81, 86, 92, 96, 97, 105, 114, 140, 146, 181, 183, 254, 265, 267, 300, 325

- leading, 92, 113, 119, 132, 146, 168, 198, 231, 267

- negative, 50, 62, 77, 83, 304

Sulkiness, 172
Suspicious attitudes causing disobedience, 59
Tale-bearing, 73, 336, 337

Talking, back, 195

- on misconduct, 62, 119, 293, 304, 305, 337

- too much about conduct, 76, 80

Teasing, 240

Terrorizing the pupil, 221

Third and Fourth Grades

- bullying, 235
- cheating, 273, 274, 306
- discipline through fear, 259
- dislike of school, 162
- disrespect, 190, 195, 202
- fighting, 238
- impudence, 205
- lying, 303
- obedience, 56
- stealing, 331, 333

Threatening the teacher, 217

Threats, 57, 78, 94, 136, 173, 191, 221, 226, 259, 332

Trips out of town, a group of pupils on, 106, 117

Truancy, 163

Visitors present—discipline of children, 61, 139

Wilful disobedience, 49, 98
Words, choice of, 175, 178
Wrongdoing of children, causes of, 20, 70

- Transcriber’s Notes:

- Page 121 - the section header was missing an item number.

- In DIVISION IV there is no CASE 25, but there were two CASE 26s. The first CASE 26 on page 180 was changed to CASE 25.

- On page 65, the “FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES” section header was missing a leading Roman numeral. “III” was added.

- Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected.

- Typographical errors were silently corrected.

- Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant form was found in this book.

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Table of Contents

- Practical School Discipline—Applied Methods Part 1

- GREETING
- PREFACE
- CONTENTS

- INTRODUCTION

- 1. Why Discipline Is Necessary
- 2. What Is Discipline?
- 3. Causes of Children’s Wrongdoing

- OBEDIENCE

- 1. OBEDIENCE IN RELATION TO SCHOOL EFFICIENCY

- 2. OBEDIENCE IN RELATION TO CHARACTER BUILDING

- 3. THE ESSENTIAL NATURE OF DISOBEDIENCE
- 4. STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF OBEDIENCE
- 5. FACTORS THAT MAKE FOR OBEDIENCE
- 6. CAUSES OF DISOBEDIENCE

- OBEDIENCE

- I. FIRST AND SECOND GRADES

- 1. Wilful Disobedience

- 2. Disobedience Due to Commands Unintelligibly Stated

- 3. Disobedience Due to Inattention

- II. THIRD AND FOURTH GRADES

- 1. Disobedience Due to Seemingly Impossible Commands

- 2. Disobedience Occasioned by the Teacher’s Suspicious Attitudes

- 3. Disobedience Due to Defective Motor Functions

- III. FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES

- 1. Disobedience as a Result of Parents Defaming a Teacher

- 2. Disobedience Due to Imitation of Others

- 3. Disobedience Due to Commanding at an Inopportune Time

- IV. SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES

- 1. Disobedience Due to Overemphasis of Rules

- 2. The Teacher Expects Disobedience

- 3. Disobedience Due to Unregulated Independence in the Child

- V. THE HIGH SCHOOL

- 1. Disobedience Due to Faultfinding Resulting in Useless Punishment

- 2. Disobedience Due to Commands That Infringe on Personal Rights

- 3. Disobedience That Is Deliberate and Persistent

- 4. Pupils Agree to Disobey

- 5. Disobedience Provoked by a Policy Contravening Community Sentiment

- 6. Disobedience Growing Out of Unbridled Pleasure Seeking

- 7. Disobedience Due to the Inefficiency of the Teacher

- CASES ARISING OUT OF SELF-PRESERVATIVE INSTINCTS

- 1. Disorders Due to Laziness, Clumsiness, Noise and Fidgets

- 2. Indifference
- 3. Stubbornness
- 4. Ill-Temper
- 5. Disrespect for the Teacher
- 6. Quarrelsomeness, Bullying and Fighting
- 7. Instinctive Fear
- 8. Cheating
- 9. Lying
- 10. Acquisitiveness

- INDEX

- THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE