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Title: Illustrations of the Croton Aqueduct

Author: F. B. Tower

Release date: November 1, 2021 [eBook #66640]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: Wiley and Putnam

Credits: deaurider, Charlie Howard, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE CROTON AQUEDUCT ***





Transcriber’s Note


Italic text is indicated by _underscores_, boldface by =equals signs=.
Other Notes will be found at the end of this eBook.




  ILLUSTRATIONS

  OF THE

  CROTON AQUEDUCT,

  _BY_

  _F. B. TOWER_

  OF THE

  ENGINEER DEPARTMENT.

  [Illustration]

  New-York and London:
  Wiley and Putnam,
  1843.




  ENTERED according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1843, by F. B.
  TOWER, in the Clerk’s office of the District Court of the Southern
  District of New-York.





  TO

  THE INHABITANTS

  OF THE

  CITY OF NEW-YORK,

  WHOSE ENTERPRISE IS STRIKINGLY EXEMPLIFIED

  BY THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE

  CROTON AQUEDUCT,

  THIS BOOK

  IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED,

  BY

                               THE AUTHOR.




PREFACE.


The _views_ which I have given of the important points on the line of
the Croton Aqueduct, are from sketches taken for my own satisfaction;
but the interest so generally taken in the work, has suggested to me
the propriety of presenting them to the public in this form. Having
been engaged in the Engineer Department during the whole of the
construction of the Aqueduct, my acquaintance with it would enable
me to present more of its details; but I have given those of the
construction of the Aqueduct, and a general _outline_ of the structures
connected with it, trusting that a more detailed description may
emanate from JOHN B. JERVIS, Esquire, who, as Chief Engineer, gave
_Plans_ and _Specifications_ for the work during its construction.

A description from such source, accompanied with detailed plans of all
the appurtenances of the Aqueduct, with the results of experiments
on the flow of water in the Aqueduct, would be a useful contribution
to the cause of science, a valuable work to Engineers generally, and
particularly so to younger members of the profession.

The history which I have given of the preliminary measures leading
to the accomplishment of this work, has been obtained, mainly, from
printed documents of the Common Council. I have also had conversations
with persons who were intimately concerned in some of those measures,
and trust that I have made the history sufficiently full to embrace the
leading steps which were taken.

The accounts of the Aqueducts of ancient Rome, and those built by the
ancient Romans in other parts of Europe, also that of the Aqueducts of
modern Rome, of Italy, France, &c., have been mostly obtained from the
French work of J. RONDOLET, in which the account of the Aqueducts of
ancient Rome is translated from the Latin of Frontinus.

For the account of the Aqueducts of Mexico and South America, I am
indebted, in a great degree, to “_Bradford’s Antiquities of America_,”
and “_Ewbank’s Hydraulics_.”

                                                  F. B. TOWER.




TABLE OF CONTENTS.


                                                                   PAGE.
  Aqueducts of Ancient Rome,                                         13

  Principal Aqueducts constructed by the Ancient Romans in other
      parts of Europe,                                               18

  Aqueducts of Modern Rome,                                          28

  Principal Modern Aqueducts of Italy, France, etc.,                 30

  Aqueducts of Mexico and the adjacent States,                       37

  Aqueducts of South America,                                        40

  Fountains,                                                         47

       *       *       *       *       *

  History of the Progressive Measures for Supplying the City of
      New-York with Water,                                           57

  Of Plans Proposed for furnishing the City with Water and of the
      Plan adopted,                                                  69

  Sources of the Croton River,                                       75

  Flow of Water in the Croton River, Capacity of the Fountain
      Reservoir, &c.,                                                76

  General Design of the Channel-way and Reservoirs,                  78

  General Construction of the Aqueduct,                              81

  Description of the Line of Aqueduct,                               95

  Appendix,                                                         125

       *       *       *       *       *

PLATES.

  Aqueduct of Spoleto, Italy,                                        32

  Sections of the Croton Aqueduct,                              84 & 86

  Entrance Ventilator,                                               88

  Isometrical View of Culvert,                                       90

  Tunnel and Gate Chamber at the head of the Aqueduct,               92

  View above the Croton Dam,                                         95

  Entablature over the entrance to the Aqueduct,                     96

  View below the Croton Dam,                                         98

  Croton Aqueduct at Sing-Sing,                                     101

  Aqueduct Bridge at Sing-Sing,                                     102

  Aqueduct Bridge for Road-way,                                     103

  Croton Aqueduct at Mill-River,                                    104

  Croton Aqueduct at Jewell’s Brook,                                105

  Croton Aqueduct at Hastings,                                      106

  Croton Aqueduct at Yonkers,                                       108

  Croton Aqueduct at Harlem River,                                  110

  View of the Jet at Harlem River,                                  112

  Croton Aqueduct at Clendinning Valley,                            113

  Aqueduct Bridge at Clendinning Valley,                            114

  Plan of the Receiving Reservoir,                                  116

  Isometrical View of the Distributing Reservoir,                   119




                      “The radiant aqueducts
      Turn their innumerable arches o’er
      The spacious desert, brightening in the sun,
      Proud and more proud in the august approach:
      High oe’r irriguous vales, and woods, and towns,
      Glide the soft whispering waters in the wind,
      And here united pour their silver streams,
      Among the figured rocks, in murmuring falls,
      Musical ever.”

                                  _The Ruins of Rome._




INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

AQUEDUCTS, FOUNTAINS, ETC.


A supply of pure and wholesome water is an object so essential to the
health and prosperity of a city, that it should form one of the leading
features of the public improvements which characterize its growth. The
advantages arising from it are so numerous, and the comforts so great,
that every effort should be made to accomplish it.

The means which have been resorted to for such purposes in almost
every city of importance in the Old World, are examples for us of the
_New_, and should induce us early to avail ourselves of that important
element of health. We contemplate with mingled emotions of wonder and
admiration, those works of art which were achieved by ancient Rome in
her palmy days of wealth and power, and among them we find that her
_Aqueducts_ hold a prominent place.

Among the ruins of cities whose history is shrouded in mystery on this
continent, we find provisions for bringing water from distant sources.
In the wilds of Central America, the persevering traveller finds
ruined cities buried in the depths of the forest, where nature is at
work covering and concealing them: among those ruins he tells us of
the _Aqueduct_. We find them also among the ruins of cities along the
western coast of South America. With such examples before us, we may
consider that by the construction of the Croton Aqueduct for supplying
the City of New-York with water has been secured an important measure
for the promotion of its growth.

Many cities of the United States have directed their attention to this
object, and some have been fortunate in finding a supply of water near
at hand, but others will look towards distant sources for a supply, and
will, ere long, resort to the construction of _Aqueducts_.

In the history of cities built in remote periods of antiquity, we
find mention made of plans for supplying water, and among remains of
those cities which are found at this day, are traces of Aqueducts. We
have accounts of Aqueducts constructed under the reign of Solomon,
and the remains of them still existing in Palestine, give evidence
of an extensive acquaintance with the principles of hydraulics among
the Hebrew architects. The Pools of Solomon, which are mentioned by
travellers who combine in their researches a regard for the arts
as well as the religion of Judea, are connected with a scheme for
supplying Jerusalem with water.

The vast expense incurred in the construction of Aqueducts by the
Ancient Romans, as well in Italy as in other countries of Europe,
proves the value that was attached by that people to a plentiful
supply of pure water, and the details of the plan of construction of
the different works, evince an acquaintance with the principles of
hydraulics which, at this day, is not generally accorded to them.
That they understood the principle that water seeks the level of its
source after encountering depressions in its conduit, is sufficiently
proved by instances, in works constructed by them, where the inverted
syphon of pipes was used in crossing valleys. That this plan was not
_generally_ adopted by them in cases where great expense has been
incurred to maintain the uniform declivity of the conduit over valleys,
may be accounted for perhaps by the want of proper material for the
construction of pipes. In cases where this plan has been adopted
leaden pipes were used, and since it is only within the last century
that iron pipes have been invented, we may reasonably conclude that
considerations of such a nature would have induced them to adopt the
more expensive plan of maintaining the general inclination of the
conduit by vast structures of masonry.

By substituting inverted syphons instead of maintaining a uniform
declivity in the conduit, would not give the requisite discharge of
water at the elevation of the _terminus_ of the Aqueduct, and perhaps
they preferred, rather than diminish this elevation of the supply
of water, to incur the expense of high structures across valleys.
The Roman Emperors, with all their power and the wealth which was at
their command, knew how to perpetuate the glory of their reign by the
erection of Temples, Palaces and other public buildings, and what
is more natural than to suppose that in the construction of these
Aqueducts, which were considered so essential to the public welfare,
they should encourage works of such architectural magnificence?
Whatever the reasons might have been for maintaining the elevation of
their Aqueducts over valleys by such expensive structures, we have no
right to charge them with the want of that knowledge which the plan of
_some_ of their Aqueducts clearly proves them to have possessed.

Trusting that it will be interesting to the reader, I shall present
an account of some of the principal Aqueducts built by the Ancient
Romans,--some of the modern Aqueducts of Italy and France; also of
Aqueducts in other parts of the world. This account might be enlarged,
to embrace a description of more of the modern Aqueducts of Europe;
but sufficient will be presented, it is thought, to interest without
detaining the reader too long in arriving at the principal object of
this work,--_a description of the Croton Aqueduct_.

A view is given of the Aqueduct of Spoleto, in Italy. The bridge
supporting this Aqueduct is remarkable for the slender form of the
piers and their great height; being only ten and a half feet thick
and two hundred and fifty feet high to the base of the arches. This
Aqueduct was built by the Goths, a people who gave a model for Church
Architecture which is much admired at the present day. It is said that
they borrowed the idea of the form of their arch from the opening
beneath an arbor of trees.

The plan of the bridge for the Croton Aqueduct at Harlem River has been
criticised on account of the small thickness of the piers as compared
with their height, and because they were not made piers of equilibrium;
that is to say, having their bases broader, so as to include the line
of thrust of the arches, so that if a portion of the bridge were
removed, the remainder of the arches and piers would maintain their
position. By the present plan the permanency of any one individual arch
may be considered to depend upon that of the whole structure.[1]

The Aqueduct of Spoleto, has been standing about eleven hundred years
and is still in a perfect state of preservation.

With proper care in preparing the foundations of the bridge at Harlem
River, there is no good reason to fear that it will be less durable
than that of Spoleto.


AQUEDUCTS OF ANCIENT ROME.

The largest and most magnificent Aqueducts of which we have any
account, were the work of the Romans; and the ruins of several of them,
both in Italy, and other countries of Europe, remain to the present
time monuments of the power and industry of that enterprising people.

For 440 years from the foundation of Rome the inhabitants contented
themselves with the waters of the Tiber, and of the wells and fountains
in the city and its neighborhood. But at that period the number of
houses and inhabitants had so augmented, that they were obliged
to bring water from distant sources by means of Aqueducts. Appius
commenced this scheme of improvement. About 39 years after him, M.
Curius Dentatus, who was censor with Papirius Cursor, brought water
from the neighborhood of the city of Tibur; and applied towards
defraying the expense, part of the sums taken in the spoils of Pyrrhus.
After them Lucius Papirius, Caius Servillius Cepion, Lucius Longinus
Crassus, Quintus Marcius, (who brought water to Rome from a spring at
the distance of nearly sixty miles,) Marcus Agrippa, Augustus, and
others, signalized themselves by their noble Aqueducts. Even Tiberius,
Claudius, Caligula, and Carracalla, though in other respects not of the
best character, took care of the city in this useful article.

In the remains of these ancient Aqueducts, some are elevated above the
ground upon a solid mass of stone work, or upon arches continued and
raised one above the other; other portions are subterraneous, passing
through deep excavations, and in many instances piercing through
mountains of rock; such is that seen at Vicovaro beyond Tivoli, where a
_tunnel_ of about five feet deep and four broad, pierces a rock for a
distance of more than a mile.

These Aqueducts were generally built of stone and covered by arches
or large flat stones. At certain distances vents were provided to
discharge the water from the channel-way; and cavities were formed,
into which the water was precipitated, and where it remained till its
mud was deposited, and ponds in which it might purify itself.

One of these Aqueducts was formed with two channels, one above the
other: they were, however, constructed at different periods; the most
elevated was supplied by the waters of the Tiverone, _Anio novus_, and
the lower one by the _Claudian_ water. It is represented by Pliny, as
the most beautiful of all that had been built for the use of Rome.
It was begun by Caligula, and finished by Claudius, who brought its
waters from two springs called Cœruleus and Curtius. Vespian, Titus,
Marcus-Aurelius, and Antonius Pius, repaired and extended it; it is now
called _Aqua Felice_.

The Aqueduct that conveyed the Aqua Neroniana to Rome, was built of
brick; this, as well as the former, was in some instances 70 Roman feet
high.

The Aqueduct that brought the _Aqua Marcia_ into the city was repaired
by Agrippa, who laid pipes from it to several parts of the city.

The _Aqua Marcia_, _Aqua Julia_, _Aqua Tepula_, entered Rome in one
and the same Aqueduct, divided into three ranges or stories; in the
uppermost of which flowed the _Aqua Julia_, in the second the _Aqua
Tepula_, and in the lowest the _Aqua Marcia_. This accounts for the
extraordinary height of this Aqueduct, which far surpassed that of any
other in Rome. From the ruins of this fabric, which are still seen, and
are called “_Il castel del Acqua Marcia_,” it appears to have been a
very superb structure.

The Aqueducts were under the care and direction, first of the censors
and œdiles, and afterwards, of particular magistrates called “Curatores
Aquarum,” instituted by Agrippa, to whom the Aqueducts of Rome were
objects of particular attention. Messala was one of these curatores in
the reign of Augustus, and Frontinus held the same office in that of
Nerva. Augustus caused all of them to be repaired.

Procopius reckons only fourteen Aqueducts in ancient Rome; but Victor
has enlarged the number to twenty.

Frontinus, a man of consular dignity, and who had the direction of the
Aqueducts under the Emperor Nerva, mentions nine. From other accounts
we are informed that nine great Aqueducts existed at Rome at the
commencement of the reign of Nerva. Five others were constructed by
that Emperor, under the superintendence of Julius Frontinus; and it
appears that at a later period the number amounted to twenty.

Frontinus, who had the superintendence of the Roman Aqueducts under the
Emperor Nerva, died A. D. 101. He gave an account of the Aqueducts,
which has since been translated into French by Rondolet. The following
table is made up of data from that work.

The table is arranged to show, _First_, the name of the water or
Aqueduct; _Second_, the era of its construction; _Third_, the length
of each Aqueduct in miles and decimals; _Fourth_, the cubic feet
discharged in 24 hours, and _Fifth_, the gallons in wine measure.

 +--------------------+-----------+---------+------------+------------+
 |                    |           |         |            |            |
 |         NAME.      |    ERA.   | LENGTH. | CUBIC FEET.|  GALLONS.  |
 |                    |           |         |            |            |
 +--------------------+-----------+---------+------------+------------+
 |1. Appian Aqueduct, | B.C. 312  |  10,3250|   3,706,575|  27,724,181|
 |2. Old Anio   „     |  „   273  |  36,6775|   8,932,338|  66,813,887|
 |3. Marcian    „     |  „   146  |  56,9417|   9,525,390|  71,249,917|
 |4. Tepulan    „     |  „   127 }|  14,2341| {   903,795|   6,760,386|
 |5. Julian     „     |  „    35 }|         | { 2,449,386|  18,321,407|
 |6. Virgin     „     |  „    22  |  14,3116|   5,085,624|  38,040,467|
 |7. Alsietina  „     | A.D.  14  |  20,4526|     796,152|   5,656,016|
 |8. Claudian   „     |  „    49  |  42,1989|   9,356,817|  96,988,991|
 |9. New Anio   „     |  „    90  |  54,1644|   9,622,878|  71,979,127|
 |                    |           |---------+------------+------------+
 |                    |           | 249,3058| 50,378,955 | 376,834,379|
 +--------------------+-----------+---------+------------+------------+

Some auxiliary supplies or feeders make the total length of the Roman
Aqueducts, at that period, exceed 255 miles.

The names of the Roman Aqueducts are taken from those of the River or
Lake which supplies them, or from the emperors who caused them to be
constructed. Frontinus gives the following as the origin of the name
_Virgin Aqueduct_: “It is called the Virgin (Virgo), because it was a
young girl who showed some veins to a few soldiers who were in search
of spring water. Those who dug followed these veins and found a great
quantity, and there is a painting in a little temple erected close by
the source representing this event.”




SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL AQUEDUCTS CONSTRUCTED BY THE ANCIENT ROMANS IN
OTHER PARTS OF EUROPE.


_Aqueduct of Nismes._

This is probably one of the most ancient Aqueducts constructed, out
of Rome, by the Romans. It is attributed to Agrippa, son-in-law of
Augustus, to whom that emperor gave the government of the country
becoming a Roman Colony.

Agrippa, flattered by the honors which he received from the inhabitants
of Nismes, made his residence there: he enclosed the town with new
walls, built baths, and probably the Aqueduct of the bridge of Gard
(“_pont du Gard_”) for bringing water to them.

This Aqueduct is nearly thirty miles in length, forming, in its course,
the figure of a horse-shoe. It brought water from the fountains of Eura
and Airan, situated in the neighborhood of the town of _Uzès_. The
bridge of Gard was about the middle part of the work, and the Aqueduct
terminated at Nismes.

This Aqueduct traversed a very mountainous country, piercing through
mountains and crossing valleys by means of arches upon arches,
forming magnificent structures entirely of cut stone. The Aqueduct or
channel-way is formed of stone throughout the whole length. The bottom
of the interior has a curved form, being an arc of a circle; the sides
are vertical, and the top covered with a flagging of cut stone, except
where it is under ground, in which situation the top is covered by
an arch of stone. The interior face of the walls and the bottom were
covered with a coat of plastering two inches in thickness, composed of
quick-lime, fine sand, and brick nearly pulverized. This coating has
now a tenacity and consistence equal to the hardest stone.

The size of the channel-way is the following: 4 feet wide and 5⅓ feet
high, except where the top is covered with an arch, in which case it is
7½ feet high in the interior.

The descent of the Aqueduct is 1 foot in 2500 feet, or 2-11/100 feet
per mile.

The water which flowed in this Aqueduct formed a deposit upon the
sides, of lime, until nearly half the channel was closed; this deposit
amounting to a thickness of 11 inches on each side. By the height of
this deposit it has been ascertained that the water flowed generally
with a depth of 3¼ feet.

The _pont du Gard_ is that part of the Aqueduct of Nismes which crosses
the deep valley in which runs the _Gardon_ or _Gard_. This part,
considered alone, is one of the noblest monuments built by the Romans
among the Gauls. It is composed of three ranges of arches one above
another. The first range, under which the Gardon flows, is formed by
6 arches; the second by 11, and the third by 35, all of which are
semicircular; supported upon piers of greater or less height.

The channel in which the water flows is upon the top of the third range
of arches, and is 160 feet above the water of the river. The whole
length of this bridge is about 900 feet.

The bridge of Gard having been broken down at the two extremities,
at a period very remote and uncertain, it is thought that this
destruction may be attributed to the Barbarians who invaded the country
of Nismes a short time after their first invasion, which is fixed at
the commencement of the fifth century, about the year 406, and it
is supposed that by this means they would deprive the inhabitants
of Nismes of the water furnished by the Aqueduct, and force them to
yield. But by this supposition, which is very probable, the water had
been running in this Aqueduct for more than four centuries; and this
structure which has been out of use during fourteen hundred years, is
still in such a state of preservation that it could be restored without
a very great expenditure of money.


THE ANCIENT AQUEDUCTS OF LYONS.

Nothing gives a better idea of the splendour of the city of Lyons under
the reign of the first Roman Emperors, than the remains of the ancient
monuments. We see there at the present day, remains of temples, of
palaces, of amphitheatres, of basins for mock sea fights, of baths and
of many Aqueducts, of which three were constructed under the reigns of
Augustus, of Tiberius and of Claudius, for conducting water to that
part of the ancient city situated upon the mountain.

The first and the most ancient of these Aqueducts, constructed by Mark
Anthony, brought the waters from _Mount-d’Or_, by means of two branches
which embraced that group of mountains.

The water furnished by the first Aqueduct having been found
insufficient, they constructed a second one to bring the water of the
Loire.

The third Aqueduct was built by the Emperor Claudius to furnish water
to the palace of the emperors situated upon an elevated mountain. The
Aqueducts built at this era are all of the same construction; that is
to say, from the plan and construction adopted by the Romans. A fourth
Aqueduct was also constructed for this city, but there is some doubt
whether it was built by the Romans.


AQUEDUCT OF MOUNT PILA.

This Aqueduct was built by Claudius, who was born at Lyons, to conduct
water to the emperor’s palace, situated on the highest part of the
city. The sources which supplied it, were in the neighbourhood of Mount
Pila, and they were brought into the main Aqueduct by branch aqueducts.
The main Aqueduct was forty miles in length; and adding the branches,
the length of the Aqueduct was forty-five miles.

There were 13 bridges of stone to support the Aqueduct across valleys
or over rivers, two of which were not built up to the plane of the
Aqueduct, but were crossed by leaden pipes which descended on one
side of the valley and, crossing the bridge, ascended on the opposite
side. In another instance the pipes descended and crossed upon a wall
of masonry and reached the opposite side of the valley. One instance,
where pipes were used, will give an idea of their general form: the
bridge was about 40 feet high and the perpendicular height of the
Aqueduct above it was 140 feet. Nine leaden pipes of about 8 inches
interior diameter and one inch thick were laid upon the inclined planes
and across the level part of the bridge; thus communicating with the
opposite crests of the valley.

These bridges which were constructed for the support of pipes, were
wider in the bottom of the valley and also half way up the inclined
plane, than they were for the remainder of the distance; and this
form has suggested the idea that the pipes of 8 inches diameter, when
they reached half way down the plane, separated, each one into two of
6 inches diameter which crossed the bridge, and converged into one
again half way up the opposite plane. But it may be supposed that they
continued of the same interior form throughout their length, and that
this extra width was made for the purpose of giving an opportunity to
fortify the pipes at the place where the pressure to which they were
subjected was the greatest.


_Construction._

They commenced the construction by making a trench in the ground of
sufficient dimensions for the masonry of the Aqueduct: upon the
bottom of this trench was laid a mass of masonry 1 foot thick, upon
which two walls were built, each 1½ foot thick and 5⅓ feet high, these
walls standing 2 feet apart, and surmounted by a semicircular arch of
a thickness of 1 foot and generally covered with earth 2 feet deep.
The interior had a coat of cement plastering, 6 inches thick on the
bottom and 1½ inch thick on the sides. The walls were constructed with
small stones from 3 to 6 inches in thickness, bedded in mortar so
that no spaces could be found between them. They avoided the use of
stones of greater thickness than 6 inches, because the walls built of
small stones, well filled with mortar, formed a mass more solid and
impervious than with larger stones, on account of the great quantity of
mortar used.

No bricks were used in the construction of the channel-way of the
Aqueduct.

Ventilators were constructed along the course of the Aqueduct 2 feet
square, and rising above the ground 2 or 3 feet. The Aqueduct when it
was above the ground, was supported upon a wall of masonry, and the
side walls of the channel-way had an increased thickness. When it was
elevated 6 or 7 feet above the ground, the foundation wall was six
feet thick; but when it had a greater elevation it was supported upon
arches and piers, and upon the elevation depended the span of the arch,
the thickness and height of the piers. The general declivity in the
channel-way, was 1 foot in 640, or about 8¼ feet per mile.

This Aqueduct supplied about 1,200,000 gallons of water in 24 hours.
The velocity of the water was about five times that of the water in the
Aqueducts of Rome.

This work was constructed at an immense expense, and in substituting
the “_inverted syphon_,” for high structures across valleys, there is
evidence of the intelligence and skill of those who had charge of the
construction.

A fragment of a pipe forming part of this reversed syphon, is
still preserved in the museum at Lyons, and an instance of the
Romans having laid pipes across the beds of rivers, is given by M.
Gautier, Architect, Engineer, &c., in his work called “_Traité de la
Construction des Chemins_,” published in 1778.

About 70 or 80 years ago, he was directed by Mr. Pontchartrain,
Minister of State, to repair to Rochefort, to conduct spring water to
the port from the fountains of the city, which were supplied from a
source, though quite insufficient for the city, in the neighborhood. In
his researches he discovered a good and copious source, at less than
half a league, but on the other side of the river, the Charente. Many
difficulties were presented, because at low water vessels might ground
upon the pipes and injure them.

However, Mr. Gautier proposed to lay down two leaden pipes, to preserve
a supply in case of accident to one, and to protect them by wooden
frames in an effectual way against injury, should vessels lay upon the
defence frames during low water. Mr. Begon, intendant of the Marine,
approved the plan, but it was finally rejected.

“Some years after,” says Mr. Gautier, “when I had charge of the roads
on the Rhone, and of many other works in the Province of Languedoc, and
while at Arles, I heard that a vessel had cast anchor in the Rhone,
opposite the city, to take some loading; but when the commander wanted
to sail again he could not raise the anchor. This fact attracted much
attention, and many people went to witness the singular circumstance.
The Captain, unwilling to lose his anchor, sent down a man, to find
what was the matter. The diver reported that the anchor was hooked
under something round, but he could not tell what it was. A capstan was
applied to raise it, which succeeded.

It brought up a leaden conduit pipe from the bottom of the Rhone,
which crossed it from the City of Arles, towards Trinquetaillade, over
a breadth of about 90 toises (576 feet) in a depth of 6 or 7 toises
(about 40 feet,) the deepest part of the Rhone. I saw some pieces of
this conduit of lead, 5 or 6 inches in diameter, about 4 lines (one
third of an inch) thick, in joints of 1 toise each soldered lengthwise,
and covered by a strip or sheet of lead of the same thickness covering
the first solder about 2 inches. The conduit was soldered at the
joints, 6 feet apart, by the same material, which made a swell at
that distance. On each joint were these words in relief =C. CANTIUS
POIHINUS. F.= which was apparently the name of the maker or architect,
who laid down the conduit pipe in the time of the Romans. I delayed
not to inform Mr. Begon, at Rochefort, of this discovery, because he
had always favoured my project of conducting water along the bottom and
across the Charente, which would not have been half so difficult as it
had no doubt been, to lay one across the Rhone where this was found.

Hence it may be believed, as I think now myself, that many things
supposed now-a-days to be new and never to have been previously
invented, may have been thought of long before, even in remote ages.”
Pp. 129, 130.


_Ancient Aqueduct of Metz._

This Aqueduct was built by the Romans when that city was under their
dominion; but it is difficult to fix upon the precise era of its
construction. It is said in the history of the city of Metz that the
Roman legions built roads in the year 70; but there is reason to
suppose that the construction of this Aqueduct, as well as that of
other important structures built by the Romans at Metz, belongs to a
time more remote, and that the date of the reign of the first emperors
may be the era when the legions of Cæsar occupied the country of the
Gauls.

The total length of the Aqueduct was 14 miles, and the fall for this
distance was about 73 feet.

The channel-way was 6⅓ feet high, by 3 feet wide, constructed with
stone masonry and having an arch over the top: the interior face of
the walls and the bottom was covered with a coat of plastering; 3
inches thick in the bottom, and 2 inches on the sides. From remains of
this Aqueduct which are now found at various points along its course,
it appears to have required many expensive structures for crossing
valleys; in one instance the Aqueduct bridge was 3,600 feet long, and
the greatest height was 100 feet. In constructing the Aqueduct over
these bridges, they formed it in two channels separated by a wall, and
each covered with an arch; thus they insured a supply of water across
the bridge by one channel in case the other required repairs.


_Aqueduct of Bourgas, near Constantinople._

Three Aqueducts exist in the valley of Bourgas, 8 miles from
Constantinople, for conducting water into the city. One of them
is remarkable for the beautiful architectural arrangement and the
solidity of its construction. It is 115 feet high, and was built under
the Emperor Justinian, A. D. 527. It has two ranges of arches, one
above the other, and the Aqueduct supported upon the second. These
Aqueducts are in some parts unlike those of Rome, which were formed on
a continuous line for many miles, with a regular inclination from the
source to the city, but are interrupted by reversed syphons. Instead of
crossing deep and wide valleys in the usual manner of stone structures,
the Aqueduct terminates on one bank in a reservoir or cistern, and a
pipe is laid from it down the sloping side of the hill to a stone pier
erected at a suitable distance; the pipe rises up the pier to the top
where the water is discharged into a small cistern nearly as high as
that in the reservoir. From the cistern, another conduit pipe descends
to the bottom of the pier, passes along the ground to a second pier at
a proper distance and rises to another cistern on the top of it, and
so on till it rises on the crest of the opposite bank, where the water
resumes its regular motion along the Aqueduct.

This plan was probably adopted with a view to avoid the expense of
constructing a bridge which should preserve the general inclination of
the channel-way; but it is difficult to imagine any advantage arising
from the construction of the piers, instead of laying the pipe along
the bottom of the valley.


_Modern Rome._

Rome is now supplied with water by three Aqueducts, being three of the
ancient works restored in modern times.

First, _Aqua Virgini_, called by Frontinus, Aqua Virgo, or _Virgin
Aqueduct_.

The trunk of the Aqueduct having been injured, the reparation was began
under the Pontificate of Nicholas V. and Sextus IV., and completed
under that of Pius IV. in 1568. This water supplies the beautiful
fountain Trevi, thus named from the three discharges issuing from it,
or from its being placed at the junction of three streets. The water
this Aqueduct furnishes is 2,322,762 cubic feet (14,168,848 gallons)
daily, discharging through 7 principal conduits, at 13 public and 37
other fountains.

Second, _Aqua Felice_. This is a part of the ancient water of the
Claudian and Marcian Aqueducts united with many others, and collected
under Sextus V. The daily quantity it furnishes is 727,161 cubic feet,
(4,435,682 gallons,) and supplies 16 public and 11 other fountains. The
Moses fountain discharges from this source.

The Pauline Aqueduct, called _Aqua Paola_, is the third of the ancient
works restored. The water is collected within the territories of Arcolo
and Bassano, and conducted along the ancient Aqueduct of Alsietina.
This was effected under Pope Pius V., and directed by Charles Fontana,
an eminent Hydraulic Architect, who constructed the great fountain
of S. Pietro-in-Montorio. Additional water was also taken from Lake
Bracciano by Fontana in 1694, under Clement X. The whole quantity in 24
hours is 3,325,531 cubic feet, (20,285,739 gallons,) about one third
of which goes to feed the fountains of St. Peters, and those of the
Pontifical Palace on the Vatican Hill; the rest is distributed among 8
public and 23 other fountains, as well as to 21 work-shops, (_usines_)
in St. Pancras-street.

An evidence of the durability of these old Roman structures is
furnished in this junction of water from Lake Bracciano by Cardinal
Orsini, under authority of Clement X., upon condition that a part of
the water should be used to feed a second fountain about to be built
in St. Peter’s Square at Rome, and the rest to be divided between the
Apostolic Chamber and the House of Orsini. From the lake the conduit
leads to the old Alsietina Aqueduct, in which it flows 20 miles to
the city, and it was found to be in so perfect a state when the trial
was first made after the restoration, October 13th, 1693, that all the
water which entered the old Aqueduct was discharged at Rome without any
loss, after its use had been suspended nearly 1000 years.




THE PRINCIPAL MODERN AQUEDUCTS OF ITALY, FRANCE, ETC.


_Aqueduct of Caserta._

This Aqueduct was built by the order of the King of Naples, Charles
III., for conducting water to his residence which he had at Caserta, a
town situated about fifteen miles north of Naples.

This Aqueduct was commenced in 1753. It is twenty-seven miles long,
from the sources which supply it to the gardens of Caserta. The sources
are at the base of the mountain called _Taburno_; the principal one is
called _Sorgente de la Sfizzo_; it is afterwards joined by streams from
many other sources, which are in the country called _Airola_.

These waters are all joined in one Aqueduct, crossing the river
_Faënza_, upon a bridge of three arches, built in 1753. Again, in
the valley of _Durazzano_, there is another bridge of three arches,
upon which the Aqueduct crosses the valley, passing over the river,
and extending from the mountain called _Santa Agata de’Goti_, to the
mountain of _Durazzano_.

This Aqueduct afterwards crosses a deep valley, which it meets between
_Monte-Longano_ and the hills _Tifata_, where ancient Caserta is
situated, about the place called _Monte di Gazzano_. The crossing
of this valley required the most important of all the constructions
connected with the work. It was accomplished by an Aqueduct bridge,
1724 feet long and 190 feet in height, composed of three tiers of
arches, one above another. The lower range has nineteen arches, the
middle twenty-seven, and the upper one forty-three; making in all
eighty-nine arches.

The labor of constructions under ground for this Aqueduct was more
than that above; it pierced through five hills or mountains, making an
aggregate length of tunnel of about four miles, and most of this was
through rock.

To give air and light to the channel, they made pits or wells; some of
which were 250 feet deep, 10 feet diameter at the bottom, and 4 at the
top.


_Aqueduct Bridge of Castellana._

This Aqueduct was built in connection with an ancient _Causeway_, which
led to _Civita-Castellana_.

This _Causeway_ was about 820 feet long and 32 feet wide; the greatest
height was about 130 feet. It was pierced in the middle of this extent,
by nine large arches; three of which were 86 feet span, and the others
were each 64 feet span. Above these arches of the bridge the Aqueduct
is built, the height of which is about 57 feet, and it is sustained
upon a series of arches of about 19 feet span each.


_Aqueduct of Montpelier._

This Aqueduct is one of the most beautiful works of the kind, which
exist in France. The length is about 3,200 feet; it conducts to
Montpelier the waters of _Saint Clement_ and _du Boulidou_. It was
built by M. Pitot, engineer and member of the Academy of Sciences. He
was thirteen years constructing it. This Aqueduct is formed by two
ranges of arches; those in the lower tier are seventy in number, and
each 28 feet span; the piers of these arches are each 12 feet thick.
The arches of the second or upper tier are much smaller, and are
arranged so that three of them come within the space occupied by one of
the lower arches. They are 9 feet diameter; their piers are 4 feet and
a quarter thick.

The greatest height of this Aqueduct is 90 feet.

It is constructed entirely of cut stone. The quantity of water
furnished by it is about 300,000 gallons in twenty-four hours.


_Aqueduct of Spoleto._

This Aqueduct was constructed in the year 741, by Theodoric, King of
the Goths, to communicate with the town of Spoleto, situated upon the
summit of a mountain. It is composed of ten grand Gothic arches
each 71 feet diameter, supported upon piers of 10½ feet thickness. The
middle arches which are over the river _de la Morgia_, are about 328
feet high.

[Illustration:

  _Napoleon Gimbrede. sc._

AQUEDUCT OF SPOLETTO, ITALY.]

On the top of this bridge is the Aqueduct which carries the water to
Spoleto.

This structure was difficult to execute, and being built of a very hard
stone, remains entire at the present day.

The total length is 800 feet, and the breadth is 44 feet.

The greatest height of this bridge is 420 feet.


_Aqueduct of the Prince of Biscari._

This Aqueduct was constructed by the Prince of Biscari, in Sicily, at
his own expense, across the river Saint-Paul, the ancient _Symète_. It
conducts a pure stream of water to the estate of the prince, and at the
same time serves as a public bridge over the valley. This bridge is
composed of thirty-one arches, the largest of which, over the river,
is 90 feet span. This arch is of Gothic form, while all the others
are semi-circular. The bridge has two tiers or ranges of arches; the
roadway is upon the first range, and the channel for the water, upon
the second or upper range. The length of the bridge is 269 feet.
The height to the top is 120 feet. It is said that this magnificent
structure was accomplished in two years.


_Aqueduct of Arcueil._

The Emperor Julian built this Aqueduct to bring water to Paris, A. D.
360; it supplied the palace and hot baths, but was destroyed by the
Normans. It was above nine miles and a half long, and was entirely
under ground, except the stone arcade over a deep valley at Arcueil.
After its use had been suspended 800 years, a new and beautiful arched
Aqueduct was built by the side of the ruins of the old one, and its
final restoration to public use was completed in 1634.

Part of this ancient construction, consisting of two arches
substantially built, still exists, near the modern Aqueduct.

The Aqueduct bridge over the valley of Arcueil has twenty-five arches,
is 72 feet high and 1,200 feet in length.

In the interior of the Aqueduct on each side is a parapet which forms a
walk. On the outside along the whole line are various openings, called
_regards_.

This Aqueduct was thoroughly repaired in 1777; and fresh sums of money
have lately been devoted to the same purpose by the city of Paris. It
supplies 36,000 hogsheads daily.


_Aqueduct of Maintenon._

This work, had it been completed, would have been one of the most
remarkable of modern times. The project was one of the noblest
examples of the enterprise which characterized the reign of Louis
XIV., and had it been carried out would have presented a work equal in
grandeur to any of the kind constructed by the Romans. It was projected
by Vauban, and the work was commenced in 1684, but was abandoned in
1688.

It was intended to conduct water from the river Eura to Versailles;
a distance of over seventy miles; and it was also contemplated to
continue the work to St. Cloud and to Paris; had this been done it
would have been over ninety miles in length. It was intended to be
of a mixed construction; partly by a canal formed by excavations and
embankments, and partly by a channel of masonry.

One of the most remarkable structures connected with it, was the
Aqueduct bridge across the valley of Maintenon. This was designed to be
entirely of masonry, having three ranges of arches, one above another.
The length of this Aqueduct bridge would have been three and a quarter
miles, and the height from the lowest part of the valley would have
been 234 feet.

The whole number of arches designed for this bridge was 685.

Some of the piers and arches of the lower tier were constructed, but
have since been suffered to crumble and fall. Many deep valleys were
filled with embankments, and the canal was completed for a portion of
the distance, but the course of the work is now but faintly marked by
the remains of these structures.


_Aqueduct of Lisbon._

The site of Lisbon, as well as the ground in its vicinity, consists
chiefly of limestone and basalt, which render it necessary to obtain
good water, at about three leagues distance, for the beverage, and
other uses of the inhabitants. The source consists of several springs
that are near to the village of Bellas, and their produce is conveyed
to Lisbon by an Aqueduct, constructed of a kind of white marble, and
finished in 1738. In some parts its course has been excavated through
hills; but near to Lisbon it is carried over a deep valley, for a
length of 2400 feet, by means of several bold arches, of which the
largest has a height of about 250 feet, by a breadth of 115. The arches
being pointed have an interesting aspect, particularly when viewed from
below, the interior of the spacious vaults being not only majestic in
appearance, but reverberating every sound. The water flows through a
stone tunnel, or covered arch-way, about 8 feet wide, formed in the
middle of the structure; and on each side there is a foot-path, with a
parapet wall, having a sufficient width for two persons to walk. The
Aqueduct enters the town on its northern side, at a place called da
Amoreira, where it branches into several others, in order to supply the
different fountains, from which the inhabitants are supplied. Persons,
denominated _gallegos_, obtain a subsistence by selling the water,
which they procure at the fountains in small barrels, and afterwards
cry it through the streets.


_Aqueducts of Mexico and the adjacent States._

The people who, in remote times, inhabited the region of Mexico, were
advanced in civilization and in the arts; they had regularly organized
states and established forms of government, and their immense cities,
their roads, Aqueducts and other public works, give evidence of the
advanced state of the arts among them and their knowledge of the
sciences.

The location and great population of some of their cities required a
familiar knowledge of hydraulic operations to supply them with water;
and hence it would seem as if they had cultivated this department of
the arts equally with others, for some of their Aqueducts were of a
character that would have done honor to Greece or Rome. Nearly all the
ancient cities of Mexico were supplied by them.

“The city of _Mexico_, which was built on several islands near the
shore of the lake, was connected to the main land by four great
causeways or dikes, the remains of which still exist. One of these to
the south, the same by which Cortez entered, was nearly two leagues
long--another to the north about one league, and the third at the
west somewhat less. The fourth supported the celebrated Aqueduct
of Chapoltepec, by which water was conducted from springs, upon an
insulated hill of that name, at the distance of from two to three
miles.”

The Aqueduct of Chapoltepec was the work of Montezuma, and also the
vast stone reservoir connected with it.

This Aqueduct consisted of two conduits formed of solid mason
work--each five feet high and two paces broad--by which the water was
introduced into the city for the supply of various fountains.

Olid and Alvarado commenced the siege of Mexico by attempting to cut
off this supply of water, an enterprise which the Mexicans endeavored
to prevent. “There appeared on that side,” says De Solis, “two or three
rows of pipes, made of trees hollowed, supported by an Aqueduct of
lime and stone, and the enemy had cast up some trenches to cover the
avenue to it. But the two captains marched out of Tacuba with most of
their troops, and though they met with a very obstinate resistance,
they drove the enemy from their post, and broke the pipes and Aqueduct
in two or three places, and the water took its natural course into the
lake.”

Humboldt says, there are still to be perceived the remains of another
Aqueduct, which conducted to the city the waters of the spring of
Amilco, near Churubusco. This Aqueduct, as described by Cortez,
consisted of two conduits composed of clay tempered with mortar, about
two paces in breadth, and raised about six feet. In one of them was
conveyed a stream of excellent water, as large as the body of a man,
into the centre of the city. The other was empty, so that when it
became necessary to clean or repair the former, the water might be
turned into it; which was the case also with those of Chapoltepec, “of
which one was always in use, whenever the other required cleaning.”

The gardens of Montezuma were also adorned and nourished with streams
and _fountains_, and appear to have rivalled those of Asiatic monarchs
in splendour.

The ruins of the city of _Tezcuco_, which with its suburbs was even
larger than Mexico, and according to Torquemada, contained one hundred
and forty thousand houses, still betoken an ancient place of great
importance and magnificence. Without the walls, tumuli, the sepulchres
of the former inhabitants, may yet be observed, and also the remains of
a _fine Aqueduct_ in a sufficient state of preservation for present use.

Two miles from _Tezcuco_, the village of _Huexotla_, situated on the
site of the ancient city of that name, which was considered as one
of the suburbs of _Tezcuco_, exhibits signs of ancient civilization,
in the foundations of large edifices, in _massive Aqueducts_, one of
which, covered with rose-colored cement, still exists in a perfect
state, and in an extensive wall of great height and thickness. A
covered way flanked by parallel walls proceeds from the ancient city,
to the bed of a stream now dry, over which there is a remarkable
bridge, with a pointed arch 40 feet high, and supported on one side by
a pyramidal mass of masonry.

_Tlascala_ was furnished with abundance of baths and fountains, and
_Zempoala_, like the city of _Tezcuco_, had every house supplied with
water _by a pipe_.

_Iztaclapa_, which contained about ten thousand houses, had its
Aqueduct that conveyed water from the neighboring mountains, and led it
through a great number of well cultivated gardens.

Among the ruins of the city of _Zacatecas_, are found the remains of an
Aqueduct; and at _Palenque_ is found an Aqueduct of stone, constructed
with the greatest solidity.

Among the hieroglyphical ornaments of the pyramid of _Xochicalco_ are
heads of crocodiles _spouting water_, and much proof may be found that
the ancient Americans were acquainted with that property of liquids by
which they find their level; and applied it not merely to fountains and
_jets d’eau_, but to convey water through _pipes_ to their dwellings.


_Aqueducts of South America._

The ancient inhabitants of Peru, Chili, and other parts of South
America were undoubtedly a refined, civilized and agricultural people;
they constructed extensive cities, roads, _Aqueducts_, &c. Though they
constructed many and extensive Aqueducts for the supply of towns and
cities with water, yet the object of the greater part of the public
works of this kind was for the encouragement of agriculture.

“The Peruvians and some of the neighboring nations carried the
cultivation of the soil to a higher stage of perfection than any of
the American nations. In consequence of the narrow extent of land
intervening between the mountains and the sea, the rivers in this
region are usually of small size, and the soil, being arid and sandy,
needs the aid of artificial irrigation. To such an extent did they
carry their ingenious efforts, that the sides of the steepest mountains
were converted into productive fields, by being encircled with
terraces, supported by stone walls, and watered by _canals_.”

“Upon the sides of some of the mountains,” observes Mr. Temple, “were
the remains of walls built in regular stages round them, from their
base to their summits, forming terraces on which, or between which, the
Indians, in days of yore, cultivated their crops.”

“Frezier says the Indians were very industrious in conveying the waters
of the rivers through their fields and to their dwellings, and that
there were still to be seen in many places Aqueducts formed of earth
and stone, and carried along the sides of hills with great labor and
ingenuity.”

“I have had various opportunities,” says a recent traveller, “of
closely examining one of these canals, which is formed at the source
of the river Sana, on the right bank, and extends along a distance of
fifteen leagues, without reckoning sinuosities, and which consequently
supplied a vast population; particularly one city, whose ruins still
remain in the vicinity of a farm now called Cojal.”

“These Aqueducts were often of great magnitude, executed with much
skill, patience and ingenuity, and were boldly carried along the most
precipitous mountains, frequently to the distance of fifteen or twenty
leagues. Many of them consisted of two conduits, a short distance
apart; the larger of these was for general use; the other and smaller,
to supply the inhabitants and water the fields, while the first was
cleansing; a circumstance in which they bear a striking resemblance to
those of Mexico.”

Molina, in his “Natural and Civil History of Chili,” observes, that
previous to the invasion of the Spaniards, the natives practised
artificial irrigation, by conveying water from the higher grounds
in canals to their fields. Herrera says, many of the vales were
exceedingly populous and well cultivated, “having trenches of water.”

The Peruvians carried the system to a great extent. “How must we
admire, (says Humboldt,) the industry and activity displayed by the
ancient Mexicans and Peruvians in the irrigation of arid lands!

“In the maritime parts of Peru, I have seen the remains of walls,
along which water was conducted for a space of from 5 to 6000 metres,
from the foot of the Codilleras to the coast. The conquerors of the
16th century destroyed these Aqueducts, and that part of Peru has
become, like Persia, a desert, destitute of vegetation. Such is the
civilization carried by the Europeans among a people, whom they are
pleased to call barbarous.” These people had laws for the protection of
water, very similar to those of Greece, Rome, Egypt, and all the older
nations; for those who conveyed water from the canals to their own land
before their turn, were liable to arbitrary punishment.

Several of the ancient American customs respecting water, were
identical with those of the oldest nations.

They buried vessels of water with the dead. The Mexicans worshipped
it. The Peruvians sacrificed to rivers and fountains. The Mexicans had
_Tlaloc_, their god of water. Holy water was kept in their temples.
They practised divinations by water. The Peruvians drew their drinking
water from _Deep Wells_, and for irrigation in times of drought, they
drew it from pools, and lakes, and rivers.

There is reason to believe that Peru, Chili, and other parts of the
southern continent, were inhabited by a refined, or partially refined
people, centuries before the time of Manco Capac, the first Inca; and
that a long period of barbarism had intervened, induced, perhaps,
by revolutions similar to those which, in the old world, swept all
the once celebrated nations of antiquity into oblivion. The ancient
Peruvians had a tradition respecting the arrival of giants, who located
themselves on the coast, and who _dug_ wells of immense depth _through
the solid rock_; which wells, as well as cisterns, still remain.

There is much uncertainty respecting Manco Capac. Who he was, and
from what country he came, are equally unknown. According to their
_Quippus_, or historical cords, and the opinion of the Inca, who
was uncle to Garcilasso, and who communicated to the latter all the
knowledge of their ancestors then extant, he made his appearance in
Peru about 400 years before the invasion of the Spaniards. It is said
he was whiter than the natives, and was clothed in flowing garments.
Awed by his presence, they received him as a divinity, became subject
to his laws, and practised the arts he introduced. He founded Cusco,
and extended his influence to all the nations around. He taught them
agriculture and many useful arts, especially that of irrigating land.
His son succeeded him, and without violence greatly extended the limits
of the kingdom; prevailing with the natives, it is said, by a peaceable
and gentle manner, “to plough, and manure, and cultivate the soil.”
His successors pursued the same mode, and with the same success. The
fifth Inca, we are informed, constructed Aqueducts, bridges and roads
in all the countries he subdued. When the sixth Inca acquired a new
province, he ordered the lands to be “dressed and manured;” the fens
to be drained, “for in that art (draining) they were excellent, as is
apparent by their works, which remain to this day; and also they were
(then) very ingenious in making _Aqueducts_ for carrying water into dry
and scorched lands, such as the greatest part of that country is; they
always made contrivances and _inventions_ to bring their water. These
Aqueducts, though they were ruined after the Spaniards came in, yet
several reliques and monuments of them remain unto this day.”

The seventh Inca, _Viracocha_, constructed some water works, which, in
their beneficial effects, perhaps equalled any similar undertakings in
any other part of the world. “He made an Aqueduct 12 feet in depth, and
120 leagues in length; the source or head of it arose from certain
springs on the top of a high mountain between Parcu and Picuy, which
was so plentiful that at the very head of the fountains they seemed to
be rivers. This current of water had its course through all the country
of the Rucanas, and served to water the pasturage of those uninhabited
lands, which are about 18 leagues in breadth, _watering almost the
whole country of Peru_.”

There is _another_ Aqueduct much like this, which traverses the whole
province of _Cuntisuyu_, running above 150 leagues from south to north.
Its head or original is from the top of high mountains, the which
waters falling into the plains of the Quechuas, greatly refresh their
pasturage, when the heats of the summer and autumn have dried up the
moisture of the earth.

“There are many streams of like nature, which run through divers
parts of the empire, which being conveyed by Aqueducts, at the charge
and expense of the Incas, are works of grandeur and ostentation, and
which recommend the magnificence of the Incas to all posterity; for
these Aqueducts may well be compared to the miraculous fabrics which
have been the works of mighty princes, who have left their prodigious
monuments of ostentation to be admired by future ages; for, indeed,
we ought to consider that these waters had their source and beginning
from vast, high mountains, and were carried over craggy rocks and
inaccessible passages; and to make these ways plain, they had no help
of instruments forged of steel or iron, such as pickaxes or sledges,
but served themselves only with one stone to break another. Nor were
they acquainted with the invention of arches, to convey the water
on the level from one precipice to the other, but traced round the
mountain until they found ways and passages at the same height and
level with the head of the springs.”

“The cisterns or conservatories which they made for these waters, at
the top of the mountain, were about 12 feet deep; the passage was
broken through the rocks, and channels made of hewn stone, of about
two yards long and about a yard high; which were cemented together,
and rammed in with earth so hard, that no water would pass between, to
weaken or vent itself by the holes of the channel.

“The current of water which passes through all the division of
Cuntisuyu I have seen in the province of Quechua, which is part of
that division, and considered it an extraordinary work, and indeed
surpassing the description and report which hath been made of it.
But the Spaniards who were aliens and strangers, little regarded the
convenience of these works, either to serve themselves in the use of
them, or to keep them in repair, nor yet to take so much notice of them
as to mention them in their histories, but rather out of a scornful
and disdaining humor, have suffered them to run into ruin, beyond all
recovery. The same fate hath befallen the _Aqueducts_ which the Indians
made for watering their corn lands, of which two thirds at least are
wholly destroyed, and none kept in repair, unless some few which
are so useful that without them they cannot sustain themselves with
bread, nor with the necessary provisions of life. All which works are
not so totally destroyed but that there still remain some ruins and
appearances of them.”

In describing the temple and gardens at Cusco. Garcilasso observes,
“there were five fountains of water, which ran from divers places
through pipes of gold. The cisterns were some of stone, and others of
gold and silver in which they washed their sacrifices, as the solemnity
of the festival required.”




FOUNTAINS.


Artificial fountains and _jets d’eau_ are of extreme antiquity; they
have been used for beautifying public grounds of cities, and have
served the purpose of moderating the temperature of the air; in these
cases the water has been in some instances perfumed.

“From excavations made at Pompeii it appears that in almost every
street there was a fountain, and that bronze statues, through which
the water issued were common,--several have been found,--four or five
are boys of beautiful workmanship; the fluid issued from vases resting
on their shoulders, or held under their arms, and in some cases from
masks. Paintings of elegant fountains, from which the water issued in
perpendicular jets, have also been discovered both at Herculaneum and
Pompeii.”

“In the middle of the square of the Coliseum, is a pretty remarkable
piece of antiquity, (says Blainville,) though very little minded by
most people. Here stood anciently, a beautiful fountain, adorned with
the finest marbles and columns; and on the top was a bronze statue of
Jupiter, from which issued great plenty of water, as may be seen on the
reverse of one of Titus’ medals. This fountain was of great use both
to the spectators and the gladiators in the amphitheatre to refresh
themselves. Pope Alexander VII. caused it to be repaired, but since his
time it has been entirely neglected.”

“During hot weather, Augustus the Roman Emperor slept (observes
Sentonius) with his chamber doors open, ‘and frequently in a portico
with waters playing around him.’”

The garden water-works of the Duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth are
probably the finest in England; being ornamented by many fanciful
devices and from a jet of six inches diameter the water rises
perpendicularly to the height of 90 feet.

The most remarkable fountain or _jet d’eau_ in the world, is at
Cassal in Germany, where the water rises from an orifice of 12 inches
diameter to a perpendicular height of 250 feet. The source from which
it is supplied is at the top of a mountain near by, being about 500
feet above the level of the town. The surplus water not used for the
supply of the fountain flows down the mountain-side forming a beautiful
cascade.

The cities of Europe abound in fountains which in their arrangement
furnish beautiful designs and are ornamented with specimens of
workmanship displaying much skill and refinement of taste: a minute
description of them would, however, occupy too much space, and since
we have had our attention drawn (on the subject of Aqueducts) more
particularly to the works of the Romans, we will revert to the


_Fountains of Rome._

“If during the most distinguished eras of the Roman state, the
Aqueducts conduced to the luxurious enjoyments of the wealthy and
powerful, yet in modern times, the residents of Rome have also found
them particularly advantageous, by their furnishing occasions for the
cultivation of those elegant arts, which, in a peculiar manner, call
forth the energies of genius, and the exercise of refined taste, in
realizing and decorating her productions. Qualities of this kind appear
conspicuous in several of the numerous fountains which adorn that
celebrated city; and the most intellectual and accomplished professors
of sculpture and architecture, have happily united beauty and grandeur
in the construction of many such admirable edifices. These structures
are also characterized by great diversity of design, as well as skilful
execution; hence, a concise description of several of them may be
interesting.”

“The largest structure of this kind in Rome, is that denominated the
_Pauline_ Fountain, which was built by order of Pope Paul V., with
the materials of Nerva’s Forum. This spacious edifice is situate on
the highest part of the Janiculum hill, and Dominica Fontana, and
Carlo Mederno, furnished the designs for its construction. The front
is adorned with six Ionic columns of red granite, on which an attic
has a tablet containing an inscription with the pontiff’s arms placed
above it. Between the columns the spaces are open, and from these
arcades the currents of water flow with a loud noise, and in great
abundance. The apertures on the sides are smaller than the others, and
in each of those is placed a dragon spouting water into the spacious
magnificent marble basin below. This fountain is furnished with water
by the Aqueduct called _Aqua Paolo_; and it runs from the basin, in a
very large stream into several canals, whence it is employed to work
various corn, paper, and other mills, as well as to supply fountains
and fish-ponds in the gardens and palaces of the opulent.”

“Near to the baths of Dioclesian, and in the square of the _Termini_,
stands the fountain of the _Aqua Felice_. The edifice is not only
elegant but fanciful, and it has three arcades ornamented with four
Ionic columns of granite. The middle arcade has a colossal statue of
Moses, causing the water to issue from the rock; and at the sides are
two basso relievos, one representing Aaron leading the Israelites to
the miraculous spring, and the other Gideon selecting the soldiers
to enlarge the passage for the water, which flows in great abundance
through three apertures into marble basins. The sides are adorned
by four marble lions, with the water issuing from their mouths: two
of these are formed of white Grecian marble, and the other two of
black granite. The latter are Egyptian workmanship, and covered with
hieroglyphics. This noble fountain was erected from a design of Cav.
Fontana; by the order of Pope Sixtus V., and its supply of water is
obtained twenty-two miles from the city.”

“Another of these fine structures is that called the _Fountain of
Trevi_, in which boldness of design, and elegance of architecture
are admirably united. The erection of this very magnificent edifice
commenced during the pontificate of Clement XII., who repaired the
Aqueducts. Niccolo Salvi designed the grand front, but the work was
completed under Clement XIII., who decorated it with statues, basso
relievos in marble, and different columns of the Corinthian, Ionic,
and Composite orders. In the centre is a statue representing Oceanus,
standing in a car, drawn by two large sea-horses, guided by Tritons.
One of the horses appears furious and impatient, whilst, on the
contrary, the other is exhibited as calm and placid, so that both are
symbolical of the tempestuous or tranquil state of the sea.

     ‘Bounding to light, as if from ocean’s cave,
      The struggling sea-horse paws the lucid wave,
      While health and plenty smile, and Neptune’s form
      Majestic sways the trident of the storm.’

“A statue, designating Abundance, is placed at the right of Oceanus,
and on the left another emblematical of Health. The basso relievo,
which adorns the right side, portrays the Emperor Trajan, contemplating
a plan of the fountain; and that on the left exhibits a girl showing
to some soldiers, the spring that supplies it with water. Various
other sculptures decorate this superb edifice; and at the top of
the principal front are two figures of Fame, supporting the arms
of the Pope. Its supply of water is furnished by the Aqua Virgini,
and it flows in very large streams from three arcades. The cost of
constructing this splendid and useful fountain was great; but it ranks
among the most interesting objects conspicuously embellishing the city
of Rome.”

“The _Piazza Novana_ has a very noble fountain standing in its centre.
It is composed of a large circular marble basin 79 feet in diameter,
in the middle of which is placed a rock of square form with apertures
at the sides. The figure of a lion adorns one side, and that of a
sea-horse another. From the base to the top of the rock, the height is
about 14 feet; and on its summit stands an Egyptian obelisk formed of
red granite, 55 feet in height, and covered with hieroglyphics. At the
four sides of the rock are colossal marble statues, which designate the
four great rivers in different quarters of the world: viz. the Danube,
the Nile, the Ganges, and the Plata: and from these statues the water
flows in copious streams to the spacious basin below.

     ‘The Nile and Ganges from the silver tide:
      La Plata too, and Danube’s streams unite
      Their liquid treasures, copious, clear and bright.’

“During the summer, it is the custom occasionally to permit the water
to overflow the whole square, for the entertainment of the people;
and on midsummer’s eve persons amuse themselves by wading and driving
through the flood. This practice has sometimes been attended with fatal
accidents, and not only men but horses have actually been drowned in
the attempts to pass it in carriages.

“In the month of August the area of the square is likewise filled with
water for the purpose of amusement.

“The same square likewise contains two other fountains, one of which
consists of a capacious marble basin, having at its centre a Triton
holding a dolphin by the tail; and on the margin of the basin are four
heads with the same number of Tritons that spout the water from their
mouths. The other fountain has not any remarkable characteristics to
entitle it to peculiar attention.”

“Where formerly stood the circus of Flora is now the site of the Piazza
Barberinni, which has two fountains to embellish it:--one of them being
composed of four dolphins supporting a large open shell, with a Triton
in the middle ejecting water to a great height. The other is fanciful,
being also formed of an open shell, from which three bees throw out the
water.”

“In the vicinity of the Temple of Vesta stands a handsome fountain,
having a capacious basin, in which some Tritons support a large
marble shell. From the centre of the latter, the water spouts to a
considerable height, and then descending flows over its margin into
the basin beneath. Some fine fountains adorn the magnificent colonnade
in front of the Cathedral of St. Peter. The _Piazza di Spagna_ has
likewise for its embellishment, a fountain in the form of an antique
boat. Besides the structures described above, there is a great number
of other fountains which evince much diversity of taste and ingenuity
in their contrivance. But at the different villas of the opulent, the
abundance of water is rendered subservient to amusing as well as useful
purposes, and several of them are rather singular. The description of
one will convey some notion of what is common to many of them.

“The delightful promenades, groves, and gardens belonging to the Doria
family, are interspersed with fountains of various forms; besides
having a beautiful lake with waterfalls. Statues, antique basso
relievos, and small fountains, adorn a kind of amphitheatre, where
a circular edifice contains the marble figure of a fawn holding a
flute, on which it seems to play different airs: the music, however,
is produced by a machine resembling an organ in its construction, and
motion being given to it by the flowing of the water from a cascade.”

“Perhaps the few instances recited above will suffice to demonstrate
the different modes employed at Rome, for calling into exercise
genius, fancy, and taste, to diversify the public edifices concerned
with its abundant supply of water; thus rendering them subservient to
magnificence, entertainment, and utility. Whilst John Dyer resided
there, he viewed these celebrated fountains with the mingled feelings
of the painter and the poet; hence, associating them with other
interesting circumstances, they furnished the materials for one of his
most striking and pathetic delineations.

                          ‘The pilgrim oft,
      At dead of night, ’mid his oraison hears
      Aghast the voice of Time, disparting towers,
      Tumbling all precipitate, down-dashed,
      Rattling around, loud thundering to the moon;
      While murmurs sooth each awful interval
      Of ever-falling waters; shrouded Nile,
      Eridanus, and Tiber with his twins,
      And palmy Euphrates; they with dropping locks
      Hang o’er their urns, and mournfully among
      The plantive echoing ruins, pour their streams.’”

                                                _Ruins of Rome._




HISTORY

OF THE

PROGRESSIVE MEASURES FOR SUPPLYING

THE

CITY OF NEW-YORK WITH WATER.


As early as 1774, when the population of the city of New-York was only
_twenty-two thousand_, the Corporation commenced the construction of
a reservoir and other works for supplying water; and for the purpose
of defraying the expense of the undertaking, issued a paper money,
amounting to _two thousand five hundred pounds_, under the denomination
of “_Water Works Money_,” and bonds were executed in favor of certain
individuals for land and materials to the amount of _eight thousand
eight hundred and fifty pounds_ more.

A spacious reservoir was constructed on the east line of Broadway,
between, what is now known as Pearl and White streets, and a well of
large dimensions was sunk in the vicinity of the Collect. The war of
the revolution, which commenced in 1775, and the consequent occupation
of the city of New-York by the British troops, was the cause of the
abandonment of the work in its unfinished state.

In the year 1798, Doctor Joseph Brown addressed a communication
to the Common Council, strongly recommending the Bronx River as a
source from which to obtain a supply of good water for the use of the
citizens. This recommendation induced the Common Council to employ
William Weston, Esquire, a Civil Engineer, to examine the subject, and
he reported on the 16th of March, 1799, in favor of the practicability
of introducing the water of the Bronx into the city. Neither of these
gentlemen had used levels or made any survey of the country over which
the water should be brought, nor was there any measurement obtained of
the flow of the stream; consequently, their opinion was only founded on
personal view, gained by walking over the ground.

In April, 1799, the _Manhattan Company_ was incorporated by an act
of the Legislature, and the object of this Company was declared to
be, to supply the city with pure and wholesome water; but instead
of looking for a supply from foreign sources, they resorted to the
plan of furnishing the water from wells which they sunk within the
city limits. Besides these wells of the Manhattan Company there were
others subsequently sunk by the Corporation of the city, as well as
by individual enterprise. Some of these wells were of great depth
and capacity, having, in some instances, horizontal excavations at
a considerable depth below the surface, branching off from the main
shaft. Efforts of this kind, however, proved unsatisfactory, and much
solicitude was felt by the citizens on account of the scarcity of
_pure_ water.

On the 17th of March, 1822, the Mayor among other measures suggested
by him to the Common Council, brought to their consideration, the
important question of supplying the city with pure and wholesome water,
and requested its reference to a Committee, which was accordingly done.
The Committee, of which the Mayor was one, proceeded to the principal
source of the Bronx River, in the county of Westchester, known as the
Rye Pond. They spent two days, the 20th and 21st of March, in exploring
the country adjacent to the River and Sound, and at a meeting of the
Common Council, on the first of April, the Mayor, as Chairman of the
Committee, made a report of their observations, and recommended an
appropriation, with authority to employ a competent engineer to survey
and profile the whole line between the city and the main source of the
river Bronx, and to ascertain the quantity of water it would afford,
and an estimate of the probable cost of completing the project of
supplying the city with good and wholesome water from the aforesaid
source. The recommendation was concurred in, and the Mayor employed
Canvas White, Esquire, a Civil Engineer, to make the said survey and
estimate.

The yellow fever prevailed in the city during the summer of 1822,
and shortly after the termination of the epidemic, on the 25th of
November, the Mayor, in a communication to the Common Council, on
subjects relative to the preservation of the public health, stated that
a very important subject connected with the health of the city, was a
sufficient supply of good water; and that on this subject all had been
done that it was practicable, under existing circumstances, to perform;
that arrangements had been made with Mr. White, a Civil Engineer of
repute, to examine the several sources from which a supply was likely
to be obtained, and to furnish correct surveys and profiles of the
heights and depressions of the country through which the water must be
conveyed, and that he had been requested to report as soon as it was
practicable.

In 1823, the Sharon Canal Company was chartered by the State, and among
its duties was that of supplying the city of New-York with pure and
wholesome water. The work was not, however, undertaken.

In January, 1824, Mr. White made his report, which he prefaced
as follows:--“That he had the honor of receiving a request from
Stephen Allen, late Mayor, to make an examination and estimate of
the expense of furnishing the city with a copious supply of good and
wholesome water. Agreeably to that request, I have made the necessary
surveys, levels and examinations to ascertain the practicability
of the project,” &c. &c. At the same date, Benjamin Wright, Esq.,
reported to the Common Council on the same subject, which he prefaces
as follows:--“In obedience to a request of your honorable body,
communicated to me by Stephen Allen, Esq., late Mayor, in November
last, desiring me to assist Canvas White, Esq., with my advice and
counsel, as to the best method of supplying the city of New-York with
plenty of good water, I beg leave to make the following report,” &c.

Mr. White reported in favor of bringing the water of the Bronx to
the city; taking it from the River at the Westchester Cotton Factory
pond. The natural flow of the River at this place, he stated to be
3,000,000 of gallons per day, in the driest season, and he proposed by
artificial works at the upper Rye pond, and by lowering the outlet of
this pond, to obtain 3,600,000 gallons more per day; thus furnishing
a daily supply of 6,600,000 gallons. The cost of bringing the water
to a reservoir near the Park, was estimated at $1,949,542. Mr. Wright
concurred with him in this opinion.

In 1825 a company was incorporated by the Legislature, and called the
“_New-York Water Works Company_,” with authority to supply the city
with pure water. Canvas White, Esq., was appointed Engineer to this
Company, and in his report to the Directors, he recommended taking the
waters of the Bronx at Underhill’s bridge; estimated that 9,100,000
gallons of water could be delivered in the city daily, and that the
expense would not exceed $1,450,000.

The charter of this company proved so defective in practice, that they
were unable to proceed under it, and they accordingly applied to the
Legislature in 1826 for an amendment, authorizing the company to take
such of the waters, land and materials, by appraisement of indifferent
persons, as might be required for the work. In this application,
however, they were defeated, by the opposition of the Sharon Canal
Company, who claimed, under their charter, all the water on the route
of their canal. The Water Works Company was accordingly dissolved in
1827.

In 1831, the Common Council of the city, impelled by a sense of the
importance of a supply of pure and wholesome water, began to take more
decided steps towards the accomplishment of the object: a Committee
of the Board of Aldermen on Fire and Water, consisting of James
Palmer, Samuel Stevens and William Scott, to whom were referred
various communications and resolutions on the subject of supplying
the city with water, presented a report adducing facts and arguments
sufficient to prove the practicability of the project and the ability
of the Corporation to meet the expense; and prefaced that report as
follows:--“That they approach the subject as one of vast magnitude and
importance to an already numerous and dense population, requiring our
municipal authorities no longer to satisfy themselves with speeches,
reports and surveys, but actually to raise the _means_ and strike
the spade into the ground, as a commencement of this all important
undertaking.”[2]

Their attention was drawn, at that time, to the Bronx River, with the
ponds at its head, as the source for supply; but appended to their
report is a letter directed to the Corporation and signed Cyrus Swan,
“who is President of the New-York and Sharon Canal Company,” in which
it is asserted, “it has been ascertained that _that_ River (the Croton)
can be carried into the city of New-York, and that without it, a supply
which shall be adequate to the present and future wants of the city
cannot be obtained.

This Committee drafted an _Act_ for the Legislature to pass, which was
approved by the Common Council, and presented to the Legislature in
the session of 1832, but failed in becoming a law. That _Act_ provided
for the appointment of a Board of Commissioners of three persons, by
the Common Council, to superintend the execution of the plan and make
contracts for introducing water into the city of New-York.

In November, 1832, a report was made by Timothy Dewey and William
Serrell to Benjamin Wright, Esq. They had examined the sources of the
Bronx River and other streams, and the practicability of introducing
the water of the Croton by connecting it with the Sawmill and Bronx
Rivers;--they did not consider it possible to bring the Croton water to
mingle with those of the aforesaid rivers without the aid of expensive
machinery, from the great height it would be necessary to elevate the
water. They finally recommended the Bronx as a sufficient source, with
some artificial reservoirs, to answer all the city purposes.

The frightful ravages of the cholera, during the summer of 1832, gave
to the subject of _a supply of pure water_ a deeper interest, and the
minds of the citizens were again aroused to the importance of it. The
Committee of the Board of Aldermen, on “Fire and Water,” James Palmer,
chairman, pursued the subject with energy; exhibiting on all occasions
perseverance and industry in their researches.

Myndert Van Schaick, Esq., being a member of the Board of Aldermen
at that time, was familiar with the question of a supply of pure and
wholesome water, and holding the situation of Treasurer of the Board
of Health, became deeply interested in the measure, and urged it as
a matter of the deepest importance to the permanence, welfare and
financial interests of the city, that every method should be taken
to investigate and probe the subject which cautious men could adopt,
and his efforts in the subsequent measures and provisions of law in
relation to it are of the same character.

In December, 1832, De Witt Clinton, Esq., of the United States Corps
of Engineers, made a report pursuant to a request of the Committee on
Fire and Water, in which, after stating the substance of the several
reports in favor of the Bronx as the source of supply, he arrives at
the conclusion, that an adequate supply can only be obtained from the
Croton River.

He proposed to take the waters of the Croton at Pine’s bridge, which
he stated to be 183 feet above the level of the Hudson; to conduct the
water in an open Aqueduct, following the line of the Croton and Hudson
Rivers, and cross Harlem River on an arch of 138 feet in height, and
1,000 feet in length. The whole cost he estimated at $2,500,000.

It does not appear, however, that any levels were run, or survey made
by Mr. Clinton, of the route he recommended; but, that he depended on
the information of others, together with his personal observation, for
the subject matter of his report.

In a report made to the Board of Aldermen in January, 1833, it was
suggested that the failure of the law asked for the year previous,
was in consequence of a want of sufficient information to warrant the
opinion of the feasibility of the project, and it recommended that
immediate application should be made to the Legislature, asking for the
appointment of a Board of Commissioners, with full powers to examine
all the plans proposed, to cause surveys, and to estimate the probable
expense of supplying the city of New-York with water.

The Committee recommended that the Commissioners should be appointed by
the Governor and Senate, and that their number should consist of five,
“inasmuch as the object of their appointment is to settle conclusively
the plan to be adopted, and the amount requisite for its performance.”
This report was concurred in by the Board of Assistants, and approved
of by the Mayor, January 17th, 1833.

In compliance with the request of the Common Council the Legislature of
the State, on the 26th of February, 1833, passed an Act,[3] providing
for the appointment by the Governor and Senate, of five persons, as
Water Commissioners, whose duty it was by said Act declared to be “to
examine and consider all matters relative to supplying the city of
New-York with a sufficient quantity of pure and wholesome water for the
use of its inhabitants, and the amount of money necessary to effect
that object.”

In pursuance of this law, the Governor and Senate appointed the
Board of Water Commissioners, consisting of the following named
gentlemen:--Stephen Allen, William W. Fox, Saul Alley, Charles
Dusenberry and Benjamin M. Brown. They were directed to make their
report to the Legislature, by the second Monday of January, 1834,
and to present a _copy_ thereof to the Common Council of the City of
New-York on or before the first day of November, 1833.

The Commissioners proceeded in the discharge of their duties, employed
as Engineers Canvas White, Esquire, and Major D. B. Douglass, of the
United States Corps of Engineers, and made all necessary examinations
so as to determine, whether a sufficient quantity of pure and wholesome
water could be obtained for present and future purposes, whether
its introduction into the city would be practicable at an elevation
precluding the use of machinery, and also what would be the probable
cost of completing the projected work. Their report satisfied the
Legislature that a supply of pure and wholesome water was of great
importance to the city--that its introduction was feasible, and
that the expense was within the financial ability of the citizens.
Accordingly an Act[4] was passed by the Legislature, on the 2d of May,
1834, which provided for the appointment of five Water Commissioners
by the Governor and Senate, and they were required “to examine and
consider all matters relative to supplying the city of New-York with a
sufficient quantity of pure and wholesome water; to adopt such plan as
in their opinion will be most advantageous for securing such supply,
and to report a full statement and description of the plan adopted
by them; to ascertain, as near as may be, what amount of money may
be necessary to carry the same into effect; to report an estimate of
the probable amount of revenue that will accrue to the city, upon the
completion of the work, and the reasons and calculations upon which
their opinion and estimates may be founded; such report to be made and
presented to the Common Council of the city on or before the first day
of January, 1836.”

It was further provided, that “in case the plan adopted by the
Commissioners shall be approved by the Common Council, they shall
submit it to the electors to express their assent or refusal to allow
the Common Council, to instruct the Commissioners to proceed in the
work.”

The Commissioners who were appointed in 1833, were re-appointed under
the Act of the 2d of May, 1834. They immediately entered upon the
duties of their office, thoroughly re-examined their former work, and
decided that the Croton River was the only source that would furnish
an adequate supply of water for present and future purposes. In making
these examinations they employed, as Engineers, David B. Douglass,
John Martineau and George W. Cartwright, Esquires. Various plans were
proposed for conveying the water to the city, and estimates made of
the cost of the work constructed by either of these plans, but the
one recommended by the Commissioners, and that for which a preference
was expressed by the Engineers, Messrs. Martineau and Douglass, was
a closed Aqueduct of masonry. These gentlemen each made an estimate
of the cost of bringing the water of the Croton River to the city of
New-York by a closed Aqueduct of masonry, and the Water Commissioners
offered, as the true cost of the work, an average of the two estimates.
The cost of the work, as estimated for this plan and presented by
the Water Commissioners, (including the cost of the city mains and
conduits,) was $5,412,336.72.

The report of the Water Commissioners was referred to a Committee,
who reported to the Common Council, on the 4th of March, 1835, two
resolutions, the first approving the plan adopted by the Commissioners
as described in their report; and the second referring the subject to
the electors at the ensuing annual election, as required by the Act of
May 2d, 1834. These resolutions were adopted by the Common Council, and
at the election in April, 1835, the subject having been duly submitted
to the electors of the city and county of New-York, a majority of the
voters were found to be in favor of the measure. On the 7th of May
following, the Common Council “instructed the Commissioners to proceed
with the work.”

Thus authorized, the Commissioners immediately commenced the
preparatory measures for the construction of the work. David B.
Douglass was employed as Chief Engineer; he proceeded in the location
of the line for the Aqueduct and in preparing plans, until October,
1836, when he was succeeded by John B. Jervis, who continued at the
head of that department during the construction of the Aqueduct.

The construction of the work was commenced in May 1837; and on the
22d June, 1842, the Aqueduct received the water from the Fountain
Reservoir on the Croton:--on the 27th of June, the water having been
permitted to traverse the entire length of the Aqueduct, entered the
Receiving Reservoir at the city of New-York, and was admitted into the
Distributing Reservoir on the 4th of July.

The Commissioners who were appointed in 1833, and re-appointed in 1834,
continued in the performance of their duties until 1837--in March, of
which year Thomas T. Woodruff was appointed in the place of Benjamin
M. Brown, who resigned his office, and the Board of Commissioners thus
constituted, continued until March, 1840, when they were succeeded by
Samuel Stevens, John D. Ward, Zebedee Ring, Benjamin Birdsall and
Samuel R. Childs. This Board of Commissioners remained in office until
February, 1843, when they were succeeded by the gentlemen who composed
the former Board.




OF PLANS PROPOSED FOR FURNISHING THE CITY WITH WATER, AND OF THE PLAN
ADOPTED.


In the course of examinations which were made to determine sources
whence water could be obtained, questions of deep importance presented
themselves in regard to the source to be relied upon for a supply, also
in reference to the plan which should be adopted for conducting the
water to the city.

It was of so much importance to the city that the supply should be
such as not only to answer the present purposes, but be adequate to
the future increased demands, and that the quality of the water should
be unquestionable, that it became necessary to extend the examinations
over every watered district in the vicinity, in order to judge of
the comparative merits of different sources. The Engineers who were
employed, traversed the country, gauged the streams, reported their
supply, the quality of the water, and plans which might be adopted
for conveying it to the city. It was a field for the exercise of the
talent and research of the Engineer: in resorting to a distant stream
for a supply, any plan which he might propose for conveying the water,
would encounter obstacles requiring skill and ingenuity to overcome.
He would find it necessary to build up the valleys, pierce through the
hills, and span the waters of the arms of the sea which embrace the
city and make it an island. Structures would be required, which, in
their design, would find no parallel among the public works of this
country, and in forming plans for them he might study with advantage,
the works constructed for similar purposes by the Ancient Romans.

The examinations embraced all the sources from which a supply of water
might be obtained in the neighboring counties of Westchester and
Putnam; giving a comparison of the different streams in regard to their
elevation, their capacity, and the quality of the water. It was decided
that the Croton River would supply a sufficient quantity of water at
all seasons of the year; at an elevation precluding the use of steam
or any other extraneous power, and that the quality of the water was
unexceptionable. Other streams were found which would furnish water
equally pure, but too limited in quantity at certain seasons of the
year, and not at a sufficient elevation.

In addition to the information furnished by the Engineers employed,
the Water Commissioners received communications from other sources
suggesting plans for supplying the city with water.

It was suggested that water might be obtained from the Passaic Falls,
at a distance of about eighteen miles from the city, in New-Jersey. The
objections to this project were, that it would be going into another
state, that an Aqueduct bridge over the Hudson River would obstruct its
navigation, and iron pipes laid across the bed of the river would be
exposed to injury from the anchors of the shipping. Another plan was
proposed which contemplated a permanent dam across the Hudson River
extending from the city to the Jersey shore. This dam was proposed to
be built about 2 feet above the level of high tide, thereby keeping all
the salt water below; and above the dam would be the fresh water for
supplying the city, which must be pumped up into a reservoir by means
of water-wheels, which would be operated by the overfall of water when
the tide was low, but when the tide was up within 2 feet of the top of
the dam there would not be sufficient fall to propel the wheels. Locks
were to be inserted in the dam, of a sufficient number to accommodate
the vessels on the river. The river, at the place where it was proposed
to locate the dam, is over a mile in width, and in the channel the
depth below the surface to proper foundation for such a structure,
would probably be 50 feet. The difference of tides is about 5 feet,
which added to the height of dam above high tides, would give 7 feet
of the top of the dam exposed to the pressure of the water on the up
stream side when the tide is low.

It was suggested that the hydraulic power here obtained, could be used
for manufacturing purposes, except that portion of it which would
be required for elevating the water to the reservoir. This plan of
supplying the city with water was objected to, because it could not
be accomplished except by an Act of the Legislature of New-Jersey as
well as that of New-York, and it was also questionable whether such
obstructions could be placed in navigable rivers without interfering
with the powers of Congress to regulate the commerce of the nation.
It was feared that in locking vessels through, the salt water would
become mingled with the fresh above the dam where a supply would be
taken for the city, to such a degree, that it would render it unfit
for domestic use. The quantity of land that would be overflowed by the
water set back by the dam, presented another objection. The space of
time that the tide would be sufficiently low to allow the wheels to
work in pumping water into the reservoir, would be entirely too short
to insure a supply. This objection was offered by Frederick Graff,
Esq., the superintendent of the Philadelphia Water Works, who stated
that although the dam on the Schuylkill River is raised 6 feet 6 inches
above the highest tides, the delay in pumping, occasioned by the tides,
averages seven hours out of the twenty-four; and in full moon tides,
from eight to nine hours.

The projector of this plan set forth many advantages which he thought
would arise from the construction of the dam, but the obstruction to
the navigation of the river, the destruction of the shad fishery, and
various objections besides those already mentioned, induced the Water
Commissioners to reject the idea of building a dam across the Hudson.

We have now gone over most of the preliminary steps which were taken
before deciding upon the source for a supply of water.--Having fixed
upon the Croton River as a stream possessing the requisite advantages
for a supply, questions naturally arose as to the manner in which it
should be conveyed to the city. The distance being about forty miles,
over a country extremely broken and uneven, and following a direction,
for a portion of this distance, parallel with the Hudson River,
encountering the streams which empty into it and form deep valleys in
their courses. It will be interesting to notice the different plans
which were suggested for forming a channel-way to conduct the water.
The following modes were presented:--a plain channel formed of earth,
like the ordinary construction of a canal feeder:--an open channel,
protected against the action of the current by masonry:--an arched
culvert or conduit, composed essentially of masonry; and iron pipes.
In deciding which of these modes should be adopted, it was necessary
to make a comparison among them as to their efficiency for conducting
the water in purity, and in the quantity required, their permanency as
structures, and their cost.

The disadvantages attendant upon an open canal were, that by filtration
through the banks there would be a heavy loss of water;--the difficulty
of preserving the water from receiving the wash of the country, and
preventing injurious matter from being thrown into it and rendering
it impure, and the impurities which might be contracted by passing
through different earths. Evaporation would also occasion a serious
loss of water. The banks would be liable to failure in seasons of
long-continued rains, and the city depending upon this for a supply,
would be cut off, except there should be sufficient in the reservoirs
to furnish a supply during the period of repairs. The canal could
never be subjected to a _thorough_ repair, because of the necessity
of keeping it in a condition for furnishing water constantly during
the whole year, so that all repairs would be done under great
disadvantages, and the channel would be yearly growing worse until its
failure might become a public calamity. In regard to the open channel
having the sides protected by masonry, the objections were found to be
such as would apply equally to every species of open channel; namely,
that it would be exposed in many situations to receive the wash of
the country; that it would be unprotected from the frost, and liable
to be interrupted thereby, and lastly, that there would be a loss by
evaporation. It was supposed that these objections might be obviated by
certain precautions; for example, the wash could be avoided by making
sufficient side drains; and the interruption liable to occur from frost
and snow, and the evaporation, to a certain extent, could be prevented
by closing the channel entirely with a roof over the top. The close
channel or culvert, composed essentially of masonry seemed to possess
all the requisite advantages for conducting the water in a pure state
and keeping it beyond the influence of frost or any interruption which
would be liable to occur to an open channel. In point of stability this
plan had a decided preference over either of the other plans proposed,
and the only objection offered was the cost of the work constructed in
this way. To avoid too great expense it was proposed to make use of a
mixed construction, using the close channel or culvert in situations
where deep excavations occurred and it would be desirable to fill in
the earth again to the natural form, also where the line of Aqueduct
intersected villages, and using the open channel with slope walls for
the residue of the distance.

In regard to iron pipes for conducting the water, it was found that
a sufficient number of them to give the same sectional area as would
be adopted by either of the other plans would be more expensive, and
considering the great distance and the undulating surface over which
they would extend, other disadvantages were presented which added
to the objections, and the plan was considered inexpedient. Could a
line be graded so as to give a regular inclination from the Fountain
Reservoir to one at the city, then the expense of laying iron pipes
for conducting the proposed quantity of water, would be greater than
for constructing a channel-way of masonry; and when laid, the pipes
were thought to be less durable. Should the pipes follow the natural
undulations of the ground, there would be so much resistance offered
to the flow of water that the discharge would be diminished in a very
great degree.

The close channel or conduit of masonry was adopted as the plan best
calculated to answer all the purposes of conducting the water to the
city.


_Sources of the Croton River._

The sources of the Croton River are principally in the county of
Putnam, at a distance of fifty miles from the city of New-York; they
are mostly springs which in that elevated and uneven country have
formed many ponds and lakes never-failing in their supply. There are
about twenty of these lakes which constitute the sources of the Croton
River, and the aggregate of their surface areas is about three thousand
eight hundred acres.

From these sources to the mouth of the Croton at the head of Tappan
Bay in the Hudson, the distance is about twenty-five miles. The
country bordering upon the Croton is generally elevated and uneven,
not sustaining a dense population and cleared sufficiently to prevent
injury to the water from decayed vegetable matter. The river has a
rapid descent and flows over a bed of gravel and masses of broken rock.
From these advantages there is good reason to suppose that the water
will receive very little impurity from the wash of the country through
which it flows, and there is no doubt that the sources furnish that
which is peculiarly adapted to all the purposes of a large city.

The water is of such uncommon purity that in earlier days the native
Indian gave a name to the river which signified “_clear water_.”[5]


_Flow of Water in the Croton River, Capacity of the Fountain Reservoir,
&c._

The medium flow of water in the Croton, where the fountain reservoir
is formed, exceeds fifty millions of gallons in twenty-four hours, and
the minimum flow, after a long-continued drought, is about twenty-seven
millions of gallons in twenty-four hours.

The dam on the Croton River is about 38 feet above the level which was
the surface of the natural flow of water at that place, and sets the
water back about six miles, forming the Fountain Reservoir which covers
an area of about four hundred acres. The country forming the valley of
the River was such as to give bold shores to this reservoir generally,
and in cases where there was a gentle slope or a level of the ground
near the surface of water, excavations were made so that the water
should not be of less depth than four and a half feet.

The great length of this Reservoir is favourable for the purity of the
water which enters the Aqueduct: spread over this large surface, it
will have an opportunity to settle and part with some of the impurities
which it receives, during rainy seasons, from the wash of the country
through which it flows.

The available capacity of this Reservoir, down to the level where the
water would cease to flow off in the Aqueduct, has been estimated at
six hundred millions of gallons.

Could we suppose that the Croton River will ever in any season of
drought, fail to furnish a supply greater than would be carried off
from this Reservoir and the Reservoirs at the city by evaporation,
we have still a supply of water which would be sufficient for one
million of inhabitants during the space of thirty days (estimating the
amount necessary for each inhabitant to be twenty gallons for every
twenty-four hours.)

But we may assume the number of inhabitants at present to be one third
of a million, and therefore we have a sufficient store of water in
this Fountain Reservoir to supply them for the space of ninety days,
in the emergency before supposed. In addition to the quantity in the
Fountain Reservoir, we have sufficient in the Reservoirs at the city
to supply one third of a million of inhabitants for about twenty-five
days, at the rate of supply before mentioned. Thus we find, should such
a limit as we have supposed ever happen to the supply from the River,
the season of drought cannot certainly be supposed to continue during
the length of time (about four months) that would be required for the
present population of the city to exhaust the quantity in store when
all the Reservoirs are full.

The minimum flow of water in the river where the dam is constructed,
has been stated to be twenty-seven millions of gallons for every
twenty-four hours. This would be a sufficient supply for one million
of inhabitants, and should the population of the city increase to one
million and a half, this supply, together with the quantity in store,
will probably be sufficient during any season of drought. There is,
therefore, no fear in regard to the supply for the present, and should
the time arrive when the city will require more than the present
facilities afford during low stages of the river, other streams may
be found which can be turned into the upper branches of the Croton,
or into the Aqueduct along its course. Other Reservoirs may also be
constructed farther up the Croton to draw from in seasons of drought.
These suggestions would only be useful to provide a supply during the
low stages of the river, for at other seasons the flow of water in the
Croton would be equal to the full capacity of the Aqueduct.[6]


_General Design of the Channel-way and Reservoirs._

A description of the general design and purpose of the channel-way in
connection with the Reservoirs will serve to give a clear understanding
of the operation of the work. Having ascertained the elevation in
the city at which it would be desirable to use the water, it was
only necessary then, to find a point on the Croton River where a dam
could be constructed that would turn the water into a channel having
a gradual descent to the required elevation at the city. So that it
may easily be conceived, it is only diverting the water into another
channel where it will flow on unobstructed. The manner in which water
is conducted from its natural channel, for the purpose of propelling
the machinery of manufacturing establishments, by a race-way or other
channel, is a simple illustration of the operation of this great work.

At the place where it was determined to build the dam across the
Croton River, the surface of the natural flow of water was about 38
feet below the elevation required as a head for the water to flow into
the Aqueduct leading to the city. By going farther up the river the
dam would have been of less height, and a point might have been found
where it would be only necessary to build a dam to turn the water, and
not form a pond of much extent above it, but for such purpose it would
have been necessary to go above where some important tributaries enter
the river, and would have required a considerable extension of the
Aqueduct. It was perhaps desirable to form this Fountain Reservoir, so
that it would afford a supply of water to draw from, should there at
any future time, in a season of drought, be more required for the use
of the city than would be flowing in the river.

No essential change occurs in the form of the channel-way from the
Fountain Reservoir on the Croton, to the Receiving Reservoir on the
island of New-York; a distance of thirty-eight miles, except in
crossing Harlem River to reach the island, and in passing a deep valley
on the island, where iron pipes are used instead of the channel-way of
masonry to provide for the pressure consequent upon a depression from
the regular plane.

At these points the iron pipes descend and rise again, so that when
the water is flowing in the channel-way they will be constantly full.
Thus it will be perceived that the channel-way of masonry will never
be filled entirely, so as to occasion a pressure on all its interior
surface.

The surface of the Fountain Reservoir is 166⅙ feet above the level
of mean tide at the city of New-York; and the difference of level
between that and the surface of the Receiving Reservoir on the island
of New-York, (a distance of thirty-eight miles) is 47⅙ feet, leaving
the surface of this reservoir 119 feet above the level of mean tide.
From the Receiving Reservoir the water is conducted (a distance of two
miles) in iron pipes to the Distributing Reservoir, where the surface
of the water is 115 feet above the level of mean tide. This last is the
height to which the water may generally be made available in the city.




GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE AQUEDUCT.


Plate I. is a section of the Aqueduct showing the form of the masonry
used in earth excavations. The foundation is formed with concrete; the
side walls of stone; the bottom and sides of the interior being faced
with brick, and the top covered with an arch of brick.

In forming the concrete a mortar is made by mixing three parts of
sand with one of hydraulic lime, and then mixing about three parts of
stone, broken to a size allowing them to pass through a ring an inch
and a half in diameter. Having thoroughly mingled the broken stone
and mortar, the concrete is placed in its proper position and form,
and brought into a compact state by using a _pounder_; and is then
suffered to remain until it set, or become indurated, before any work
is commenced upon it. The object should be to mix as many stones or
pebbles as will thoroughly bed in the mortar, allowing none of them to
come in contact, but all to be enveloped in mortar. This forms a body
which becomes indurated and makes a foundation under the whole length
of the Aqueduct like one continuous stone. It attains a degree of
hardness which gives it the appearance of the conglomerate bearing the
name of _Pudding-stone_, and is an article of the greatest importance
in forming foundations for walls of great weight; superseding in many
instances, where the soil is soft, the use of piles or other timber
foundation.

Though we have evidence that concrete was used by the Ancient Romans in
the foundations of some of their structures and even in the formation
of their roads--such as the Appian-Way, and though we find it used
in the foundations of the feudal castles of the Norman Barons of
England, still it has not been introduced into the general practice of
architecture until quite a modern date, and even at the present time
is not widely appreciated in this country as a material of so much
importance in foundations.

The side walls are laid up in a character of workmanship styled
“_rough-hammered work_;” the stone required to be of sound and durable
quality and laid in a manner to render the work water-tight. Though
attention is given in some degree to insure a proper bond to the wall,
yet the point more particularly attended to, is to make it compact
and impervious to water. The bonding of the wall is not by any means
disregarded, in all situations where it is required, yet the position
of the work generally, where it is in excavation below the natural
surface of the ground, renders such precaution of less importance
than that of making it compact. The mortar used in these side walls
is formed by mixing clean sharp sand with hydraulic lime, using the
proportions of three parts of the sand to one of the lime; and these
are thoroughly mixed and incorporated before they are wet; when this
mixture is wet and thoroughly worked, it is used immediately and always
kept properly tempered so as to render it plastic, and to prevent any
disposition to become hardened before it is in the wall. After the
side walls are finished and the concrete between them has received its
proper form, a coating of plastering, about three eighths of an inch
in thickness, is put on over the surface of the concrete and on the
face of the walls before the interior facing of brick is commenced.
The proportions of this plastering are two parts of sand to one of the
hydraulic lime.

The bricks used in this work are generally of quite a different
character from those used in ordinary house-building; being harder
burnt and of a superior quality of material. They are required to be
burnt to such a degree of hardness that they present a cherry red, or
brownish color, and give a clear ringing sound when struck; and when
broken, must present a compact and uniform texture. All bricks brought
upon the work which are soft and of a pale color, such as are usually
denominated _salmon brick_, are rejected. Those which are used, possess
nearly the hardness and durability of ordinary building stone, and are
calculated to resist the action of the water, to which they will be
exposed.

The advantage of using brick is, that a smooth channel offering little
resistance to the flow of water can be formed with less expense than
with stone, and greater security can be obtained against any leakage;
for besides the coat of plastering which covers the face of the walls
and the top of the concrete, there is also a mortar joint between
this plastering and the brick work. The bricks being of good form and
easily handled, can be more expeditiously and closely laid than the
face of a wall of stone, and afford a smooth and uniform face to the
wall with less expense. They are required to be bedded full and flush
with mortar, so that on lifting one from its position in the work,
no imperfections be discovered, but the impress of the brick be found
distinct throughout.

The proportions of the mortar for the brick work, are two parts of sand
to one of hydraulic lime.

The inverted arch of brick, as well as the brick facing on the sides,
is four inches thick, and the roofing arch of brick is eight inches
thick.

After the masonry is finished the excavation which was done to receive
it, is filled up around it, and over the top of the roofing arch
generally to the height of 3 to 4 feet, and in some instances of deep
excavation, up to the natural surface. If the natural surface be not
of sufficient height for the top of the earth covering, the earth is
raised to the requisite height with proper width on the top and slopes
on the sides for protection to the Aqueduct masonry.

[Illustration: I

  _F. B. Tower._      _Gimber._
]

[Illustration: II

  _F. B. Tower._      _Gimber._
]

[Illustration: III

  _F. B. Tower._      _Gimber._
]

[Illustration: IV

  _F. B. Tower._      _Gimber._
]

Plate II. is a section of the Aqueduct in open cutting in rock.

After the rock has been excavated to the required depth and width,
the bottom is levelled up with concrete to the proper height and form
for the inverted arch of brick, which is laid in the manner before
described for earth excavation. The side walls of stone and brick are
bonded together by headers of brick entering the stone walls as shown
in the drawing, and the walls of stone are built closely against the
sides of the rock and forming a junction with it. On the exterior
of the roofing arch a heavy spandrel of stone masonry (of the same
character as the stone walls beneath it) is built, filling the space
between the arch and the rock. After the masonry is finished, the rock
cut above it is filled with earth to the same height above the
roofing arch as mentioned for earth excavation.

Plate III. is a section of the Aqueduct in tunnel cutting in rock.

The width of the tunnel excavation in rock is the same as that of open
excavation in rock; and the manner of building the masonry to form
the channel-way is the same, with the exception that the rock roof of
the tunnel serves as the roof of the channel-way, where it is sound,
but in cases where the rock is soft and liable to fall, a brick arch
is built over the channel-way, and the space between its extrados, or
outer surface, and the rock roof is filled with earth closely rammed
in. In some instances where the tunnel perforated rock which was at
first quite hard, the roofing has by exposure to the air, become soft
and insecure, so as to render it necessary to turn an arch for its
support. This is attended with inconvenience and some difficulty after
the channel-way has been completed and closed through the tunnel.

Plate IV. is a section of the Aqueduct in tunnel cutting in earth.

When the earth is dry and compact, the excavation for the bottom and
sides is made of a proper form to receive the masonry, which is built
closely against it: the top is excavated sufficiently high to give room
to turn the arch, and the space above is afterwards filled with earth
closely rammed in. Where the earth is wet and there is difficulty in
making it stand, the excavation is made larger, and props of timber
and plank are used to support the top and sides until the masonry
be completed; and the whole space exterior to the masonry is then
compactly filled with earth.

Plate V. is a section of the Aqueduct showing the manner of
constructing it across valleys, or where the natural surface of the
ground falls below the plane of grade.

In such cases the Aqueduct is supported upon a foundation wall of
stone laid dry, and formed by using large stones laid in positions
to give proper bond, and to allow small broken stone to be closely
packed in, filling up all the interstices so as to form a compact and
uniform mass. The wall is generally allowed to stand some months after
it is completed, before the masonry of the Aqueduct is commenced upon
it, lest by this weight being placed upon it before it has found its
bearing, it should settle and cause cracks in the masonry. That such
settlement should in some instances occur, even after the Aqueduct
is completed, is not surprising, for passing over so many different
elevations, and encountering such numerous transitions from a hard
soil, or from rock, to valleys of alluvial deposit, it would be beyond
human powers of foresight and vigilance to prevent it.

[Illustration: V

  _F. B. Tower._      _Gimber._
]

To render the Aqueduct more secure in such positions, the concrete
foundation has an increased thickness, and in preparing it a greater
proportion of hydraulic lime is used; the proportion being two and
a half parts of sand to one of lime. The dimensions of the stone
side walls and the spandrel backing of the roofing arch, are also
increased; and the proportion of hydraulic lime to the sand in the
mortar for these is increased. Another precaution has been taken to
render the work secure, by plastering the interior of the Aqueduct over
these foundation walls. The embankment adjacent to foundation walls
has various slopes according to circumstances, and is generally
protected with a dry stone wall on the face, and is carried up of
sufficient width to insure the requisite covering over the Aqueduct
masonry.

Along side hills an excavation is made for the Aqueduct into the hill,
and a protection wall of stone built on the lower side so as to support
a covering of earth over the masonry; great care being taken to obtain
a deep and firm footing for this wall in order to render the work
secure. In such a position the Aqueduct is perhaps less secure than
in those before described. Where the soil is wet from springs, and
the formation clay, there is danger of slides; and in rainy seasons
there is danger from the torrents which gather on the hill sides and
come down with destructive force: the earth covering is liable to be
carried away, and the Aqueduct itself to be undermined. Great care has,
however, been used in such cases to form strong paved channels for the
passage of the water over the top of the Aqueduct, or by culverts to
pass it underneath.


WASTE-WEIRS.

At suitable places on the line of the Aqueduct, waste-weirs are
constructed to discharge surplus water. They are constructed in one
side of the channel-way, in such manner as to allow the water to flow
off when it rises above a given level, and arrangements are also made
at these places to close the channel-way entirely, by means of stop
planks, and to discharge the whole of the water through waste-gates;
so that the water might be running from the Fountain Reservoir through
a portion of the Aqueduct and discharging from these waste-weirs
while the remainder of the channel-way, or portions of it, would be
drained so as to admit of inspection or repairs. There are six of these
waste-weirs constructed for the Aqueduct.


VENTILATORS.

For the purpose of ventilation hollow cylinders of stone are erected
over the top of the Aqueduct and rising about 14 feet above the surface
of the ground, or earth covering. These occur every mile, and every
third one is constructed with a door to afford an entrance to the
Aqueduct.

Those allowing an entrance have an interior diameter of 4 feet, and the
others have an interior diameter of 2 feet; each, however, slightly
diminishing towards the top. An iron grating covers the top to prevent
any thing being thrown in.

Plate VI. is a view of an entrance ventilator; this stands on one side
of the Aqueduct, where the masonry of the side wall is enlarged for
its base; we can descend from the door and gain an entrance to the
channel-way by an opening in the side of the roofing arch. The sill of
the door is about 12 feet above the bottom of the channel-way.

[Illustration: VI

  _F. B. Tower._      _Gimber._

ENTRANCE VENTILATOR]

Those not intended for an entrance stand directly over the top of the
Aqueduct and are groined into the roofing arch.

Besides these Ventilators, there are openings 2 feet square in the top
of the roofing arch, every quarter of a mile: they are covered with a
flag stone and the place is marked by a small stone monument projecting
above the surface of the ground. These may be useful to obtain entrance
to the Aqueduct, or to afford increased ventilation should it ever
become necessary.


CULVERTS.

Where streams intersect the line of Aqueduct, culverts are built to
allow them to pass under it. They are simply a stone channel-way built
under the Aqueduct of such form and dimensions as will allow the stream
to pursue its natural direction without causing injury to the work. The
foundation of these culverts is formed by laying down concrete, upon
which an inverted arch of cut stone is laid forming the bottom of the
water-way: side walls of stone are built and surmounted by an arch of
stone. The span, or width of water way, of the culverts built, varies
from 1½ foot to 25 feet. Those of 1½ foot span have a square form for
the water-way, and are constructed by making a foundation of concrete,
upon which a flooring of well dressed stone is laid forming the bottom
of the water-way, and from this, side walls are built and covered by a
course of thick stone flagging well dressed and closely fitted. At each
end of the culvert a deep wall is built underneath so as to prevent
the water from doing injury by undermining it. Buttresses and wing
walls are built at each end of the culvert to guide the water to and
from the channel-way, and a parapet wall is built over the top of the
channel-way at each end to sustain the embankment of earth over the
culvert. These wing walls and parapets have various forms; sometimes
the parapet is built across the top of the culvert, and the wing walls
built at right angles to it, and sloping down to the buttresses, and
sometimes the wing walls and parapet form one continuous wall of a
semi-circular form, the top sloping up from the buttresses in a plane
parallel with the slope of the embankment covering the Aqueduct above.
These culverts are permanently constructed, and in preparing the plans
for them much skill has been displayed in adapting the form and size
which the circumstances required, and much taste displayed in the
design for their construction.

Plate VII. is an isometrical drawing of one of the culverts with
rectangular wings and parapets; the body of the culvert is cut in two
in the drawing, showing that it may be of any length, according to the
width of the embankment through which it is constructed. The length is
generally arranged so that the slope of the embankment may intersect
the rear of the top of the parapet and pursue a direction down,
parallel with the slope of the top of the wing walls.

[Illustration: VII

        Scale of 4 feet to one inch

  _F. B. Tower._      _Gimber._
]


_Gate Chamber at the Head of the Aqueduct and Grade of the Water-way of
the Aqueduct._

Plate VIII. is a longitudinal section through the _tunnel_ and _gate
chamber_ at the head of the Aqueduct showing its connection with the
_Fountain Reservoir_. This gate chamber is not in any way connected
with the dam itself, but stands some distance from it, and the water
reaches it by means of the tunnel which leaves the Reservoir above the
dam and passes through the solid rock of the hill against which the
masonry of the dam is built, a distance of over 200 feet. This tunnel
descends into the Reservoir, so that the centre of it at the mouth is
about 12 feet below the surface of the water; any floating substance
cannot enter it, and during the winter season when the water is frozen
over no obstruction can take place to the flow into the Aqueduct, and
during the summer season the water will be drawn from a level where it
is cooler than at the surface.

The gate chamber has two ranges, or sets of gates; one called
_regulating gates_, and the other _guard gates_: the regulating gates
are made of gun metal, and work in frames of the same material which
are fitted to stone jambs and lintels: the guard gates are made of
cast iron, and work in cast iron frames also attached to stone jambs
and lintels. The gates are all managed by means of wrought iron rods
attached to them, having a screw formed on the upper part on which a
brass nut works, being set in a cast iron socket-cap.

The bottom of the water way, of the Aqueduct, where it leaves the gate
chamber is 11.40 feet below the surface of the Fountain Reservoir, and
154.77 feet above the level of mean tide at the city of New-York. The
following table shows the length of the Aqueduct as it is divided into
different planes of descent, from the gate chamber at the Croton dam to
the gate chamber at the Receiving Reservoir on the Island of New-York.
Commencing at the south side of the gate chamber at the Croton dam,

                                                              and the
                                            ft.      miles,   descent
  The 1st plane of Aqueduct extends      26099.72 =  4.943,   2.94 ft.
  The 2d plane of  Aqueduct extends     148121.25 = 28.053,  30.69 ft.
  Length of pipes across Har. River,      1377.33 =  0.261.
  Diff. of level betw’n extremes of pipes                     2.29 ft.
  The 3d plane of Aqueduct extends       10733.14 =  2.033,   2.25 ft.
  Length of pipes across Manhat. valley,  4105.09 =  0.777.
  Diff. of level betw’n extremes of pipes                     3.86 ft.
  The 4th plane of Aqueduct extends      10680.89 =  2.023    1.60 ft.
                                        ---------   ------   ---------
                                        201117.42 = 38.090   43.63 ft.

Making the whole distance from the gate chamber at the Croton dam to
the gate chamber at the Receiving Reservoir 201117.42 feet, or 38.09
miles, and the whole descent 43.63 feet.

The descent on the first plane is about 7⅛ inches per mile.

The descent on the second and third plane is about 13¼ inches per mile.

The descent on the fourth plane is about 9½ inches per mile.

In crossing Harlem River there is a fall of 2 feet more than there
would have been had the Aqueduct continued across with its regular
inclination: this _extra_ fall will afford an opportunity to adjust the
number and capacity of the pipes (which descend below the level of the
Aqueduct and rise again) to discharge the full quantity of water as
freely as the Aqueduct, or channel-way of masonry, would have done had
it continued its regular inclination across the valley.

In crossing Manhattan Valley there is an _extra_ fall of 3 feet for the
same reasons as before stated for that at Harlem River. In both cases,
by using the pipes, there is a loss of the head of water for the City
Reservoirs, equal to the amount of this _extra_ fall; but this small
loss of head was not considered of such importance as to induce the
building of structures across these valleys up to the plane of Aqueduct
grade.

[Illustration: VIII

  _F. B. Tower._      _Gimber._
]

The bottom of the water-way of the Aqueduct at the gate chamber where
it enters the Receiving Reservoir, is 7.86 feet below the level of
top water line in the Reservoir, thus when the Reservoir is full the
water will rise to within 7¼ inches of the top of the interior of
the Aqueduct at that place, and the height from top water to the
top of the interior will increase, going northward according to the
inclination of the plane of Aqueduct grade, until it reach the surface
level of the flow of water in the Aqueduct.

The height of the interior of the Aqueduct is 8 feet 5½ inches, and the
greatest width is 7 feet 5 inches. The sectional area of the interior
is 53.34 square feet. On the _first plane_, the Aqueduct is larger;
being 2.05 feet higher at the gate chamber, 2.31 feet higher at 2244.
feet from the chamber, and then diminishing, to the head of the second
plane, where it assumes the size above mentioned and continues of that
size throughout the remainder except in tunnels, where it assumes the
forms before described. Where the Aqueduct on the _first plane_ is
larger, the width across the interior at the spring line of the roofing
arch is the same as the general width, but the increase takes place
only in the height of the side walls, and the slope of the inner face
of the walls being the same, the width across at the spring line of the
inverted arch will be less according to the increased height of walls.
The original design was to continue the inclination which the _second
plane_ has, up to the _Fountain Reservoir_; but it was considered
desirable to draw from this Reservoir at a lower level, and the head
of the Aqueduct was depressed for that purpose, and a less inclination
adopted for the length of the _first plane_. The roofing arch was left
on the same inclination as was originally designed, except for the
distance of 2244. feet from the gate chamber, where it was built on a
level.

The curves which are used to change the direction of the line of the
Aqueduct are generally formed with a radius of 500 feet; some have a
radius of 1000 feet, and in a few instances larger ones are adopted,
but the majority of them are of 500 feet radius.

The velocity of the water in the Aqueduct has been ascertained to be
about one mile and a half an hour when it is 2 feet deep; this was
determined by floating _billets_ of wood from the Croton Dam to Harlem
River and noting the time of their passage. Such an experiment would
express the surface velocity and would give a greater velocity than
it would be proper to attribute to the _whole body_ of water in the
Aqueduct; but the depth of water in the Aqueduct will be probably 4
feet as soon as it is brought into general use, and then there will be
a corresponding increase in the velocity of the _body_ of water. This
velocity of a _mile and a half an hour_ may be taken in general terms
as the _velocity of the water in the Aqueduct_.

[Illustration: IX

  _F. B. Tower._      _W. Bennett._

VIEW ABOVE THE CROTON DAM.]




DESCRIPTION OF THE LINE OF AQUEDUCT.


The dam, built to form the Fountain Reservoir, is about six miles above
the mouth of the Croton River. The reservoir forms a beautiful sheet of
water in the lap of the hills in the wild region of the Croton, and has
received the name of the “Croton Lake.”

Pine’s Bridge over the Croton River, which is mentioned in the early
history of the country, occupied a position which is now about the
middle of this Reservoir, and there is at that place a bridge over the
Reservoir resting upon piers and abutments.

The hills which bound the Croton Valley where the Reservoir is formed
are so bold as to confine it within narrow limits: for about two miles
above the dam the average width is about one eighth of a mile; at this
distance from the dam the valley opens so that for the length of two
miles more the width is about a quarter of a mile; here the valley
contracts again and diminishes the width until the flow line reaches
the natural width of the River at the head of the lake. The country
immediately contiguous to the shore has been cleared up, and all that
would be liable to impart any impurity to the water has been removed.
This gives a pleasing aspect to the lake, showing where the hand of
art has swept along the shores leaving a clean margin. Retiring from
the water are the richly cultivated slopes with the neat farm houses
overlooking the lake, or the hills crowned with forest trees, while at
intervals a valley or ravine opens and empties in its tributary stream.

Plate IX. is a view taken above the dam showing the position of the
entrance to the tunnel which leads from the Reservoir to the gate
chamber at the head of the Aqueduct. The entablature which is seen on
the left against the rock, is built directly over the mouth of the
tunnel, and from this the tunnel extends through the rock to the gate
house, which is seen on the right of the picture and some distance from
the dam. The structure which is seen in the centre of the picture and
on the ridge of the dam is a gate house over a culvert which extends
through the body of the dam; this culvert is 30 feet below the surface
of water when the Reservoir is full, and has gates which are operated
by means of rods which rise to the interior of the house. During low
stages of the River the water which is not drawn off by the Aqueduct
may pass through this culvert and allow none to pass over the dam.

The entrance to the tunnel is protected by a screen of timber work.

Plate X. is a representation of the entablature over the mouth of the
tunnel, showing the inscriptions upon it, relating to the date of
the commencement of the dam and its completion, the persons who had
contracts for building it, and those having charge of the work during
the time.

[Illustration: X

  ENTRANCE TO THE CROTON AQUEDUCT

  COMMENCED 1837

  COMPLETED 1842
]

Plate XI. is a view taken from a point below the dam and shows the
relative positions of the dam and the gate chamber at the head of the
Aqueduct.

The original channel of the River where the dam is built, was about
120 feet wide; the average depth of water at this place was about 4
feet; and the greatest depth 10 feet.

The left bank of the river arose abruptly with rock, the channel was
gravelly, and on the right bank a sandy table land about 3 feet above
the ordinary surface of water extended about 80 feet; then a sandy hill
arose on a slope of about forty-five degrees.

In making the plan for a dam at this place it was determined to
fill the main channel and the table land on the right bank with an
embankment of earth; and on the left bank where rock was found, to
build a body of masonry against the slope to the requisite height for
the surface of the Reservoir and connect it with the embankment in
the channel; this masonry formed the overfall for the water, and the
rock in the side of the hill adjacent to it was excavated down to the
level of the overfall, thereby extending it into the hill, making the
space for the water to pass over partly of masonry and partly of rock.
The embankment extended with a slope on the upstream side giving it a
broad base, and the lower or downstream side was faced with a heavy
wall of stone. There was a timber pier constructed in the embankment
extending across the channel and faced with plank on the upstream side.
The overfall was made of such length as was thought sufficient to pass
all the water of the river during its highest stages, and with the view
of adapting it to such purpose, examinations were made to find the
highest marks of floods on the banks of the river; and those who were
engaged in determining these marks were guided also by the observations
of the inhabitants of the vicinity who had long known the river in its
various stages. High freshets were witnessed during the construction
of the work, for in the course of two years that the work was going up,
all the various changes and freshets of rainy seasons were experienced,
and those in charge of it did not neglect to note the quantity of water
flowing on such occasions.

[Illustration: XI

  _F. B. Tower._      _Gimbrede. sc._

VIEW BELOW THE CROTON DAM.]

With such opportunities to become acquainted with the changes of the
stream they could not fail to know the quantity of water flowing at
periods of the highest freshets, and knowing it, to adapt an overfall
of sufficient capacity for its discharge. For this purpose it was
thought ample provision was made; yet at the time when the work
was nearly completed such a flood occurred as could not have been
anticipated from previous knowledge of the River; the water filling the
entire passage at the overfall, flowed over the top of the embankment
where it was not supposed it could ever reach. The lower slope of this
embankment was covered with a wall not calculated to resist the action
of the water and it gave way; the water broke through the embankment
and rushed along the valley with most disastrous consequences. The
breach occurred at an early hour in the morning; and many persons were
suddenly aroused from their sleep to escape before the approaching
waters. Dwelling-houses and mills were carried away and three lives
were lost. Two of those who were drowned had taken refuge in the tops
of trees, but these being swept away they were drowned; while others
who were not able to reach the main land, but had also taken refuge in
trees, were saved. The change wrought by the flood, in the appearance
of the country, was truly wonderful and the destruction was complete.
Night had closed over that valley where all was happiness and quiet,
but day opened upon a scene of desolation. The fertile fields were torn
up and covered with masses of stone and gravel, and the flood left
marks of its fury far up on the hill sides.

At the commencement of the rain which caused this flood, the ground was
covered with snow to the depth of eighteen inches: the weather became
warm and the powerful rain storm continued incessantly for forty-eight
hours. Notwithstanding the immense volume discharged at the overfall
of the dam, the water was rising, during the night previous to this
disaster, at the rate of fourteen inches per hour over the Reservoir,
covering an area of four hundred acres.

It occurred on the 8th of January, 1841.

In repairing the breach it was decided to build an extension of solid
hydraulic masonry in the place of the portion of embankment which was
carried away.

The gate house and wing wall, which is seen on the ridge of the dam,
shows where the masonry of the original structure connected with the
embankment which extended across the river. The whole length of the
overfall is 251 feet. Access to the house over the culvert, is gained
by a foot bridge which is seen in the picture. The masonry of the
original structure has a rock foundation, and the extension of the
overfall which is seen on the left of the house extending across to the
embankment has an artificial foundation of concrete.

The masonry of the dam is about 8 feet thick at the top and 65 feet at
the base; it is built in a vertical form on the upstream side, with
occasional offsets, and the lower face has a curved form such as to
pass the water over without giving it a direct fall upon the apron at
the foot; this apron is formed of timber, stone, and concrete; and
extends some distance from the toe of the masonry, giving security at
the point where the water has the greatest action. A secondary dam has
been built at a distance of 300 feet from the masonry in order to form
a basin of water setting back over the apron at the toe of the main dam
so as to break the force of the water falling upon it. This secondary
dam is formed of round timber, brush wood, and gravel; it may be seen
in the picture directly under the bridge which extends across below the
main structure.

On the upstream side of the masonry of the dam, an embankment of earth
is filled in, extending 275 feet from the masonry at the base, and
extending from the masonry with a slope of 1 foot in 5 on the top.

[Illustration: XII

  _F. B. Tower._      _W. Bennett._

CROTON AQUEDUCT AT SING SING.]

The whole work about the dam possesses great interest, and though it
be distant from the city and somewhat difficult of access, will not
fail to please those who may take time to visit it. Just above the
place where the dam is constructed the River had a bold turn and flowed
along at the foot of a steep and rugged bank. A road passed along at
the base of this hill leading to a mill which was situated at the turn
of the River, before mentioned; a substitute for this road, which was
submerged, has been made along the hill side passing on the right of
the gate house. Enough of the forest has been cleared away to admit of
the construction of the work, but the place still possesses much of its
original wildness, and to see such beautiful mechanical work standing
against the rude rocks,--to observe what changes have been wrought
in the form of this rock to render it subservient to the purposes of
the work, makes us feel that there has been a strife there; but it all
shows that _art_ has gained the ascendency.

The form which has been adopted for the face of the extension of the
overfall is a reversed or double curve which would be easily recognized
as _Hogarth’s line of beauty_: the overfall for the original dam has a
plane face with a curve at the base.

Walks are formed about the work bordered with grass, giving a neatness
and finished appearance to the whole; and every thing in connection
seems to indicate that the vicinity of the _Croton Dam_ will be one of
the resorts in summer seasons for the citizens of New-York. From the
Croton Dam the Aqueduct passes along the left side of the valley of the
Croton River until at the mouth of this river it reaches the left bank
of the Hudson, which it pursues, keeping at a distance of nearly half
a mile from the River, until it arrives at the village of Sing-Sing,
which is eight miles from the dam. In the course of this distance the
Aqueduct passes through four tunnels and encounters many valleys and
ravines where high foundation walls were required, and culverts for the
passage of the streams.

At the village of Sing-Sing there are two Aqueduct bridges; one over a
public road-way, and the other over the Sing-Sing Kill. These bridges
and the adjacent work form a very interesting point on the line of
Aqueduct.

Plate XII. is a view of the Aqueduct at this place: at the left of the
picture may be seen the bridge over the road, and on the right that
over the Kill. The bridge over the road has a span of 20 feet, and the
direction of the road-way being not at right angles with the line of
Aqueduct required the arch to be built askew; the arch lies in the
direction of the road-way, having the ends in planes parallel with the
direction of the Aqueduct. This bridge is worthy of notice, but public
attention is more generally directed to the larger one: _that_ has an
arch of 88 feet span and a rise of 33 feet; the form of the arch is
elliptical, being a compound curve drawn from five different centres,
or radius points. The Kill, or valley over which this arch stands, is a
deep narrow gorge worn by a small stream which empties into the Hudson
River.

The bottom of the ravine is about 70 feet below the soffit or under
side of the arch. Plate XIII. is another view of the large arch taken
from the bottom of the valley near it, and shows the bridge which has
been constructed for a public road passing under it, and the mill near
by.

[Illustration: XIII

  F. B. Tower.      Napoleon Gimbrede. sc.

AQUEDUCT BRIDGE AT SING SING.]

This arch presents a singularly bold appearance, vaulting over the
roadway and rising high up above the old mill, and what adds much to
this boldness, is the narrowness of the arch, or small distance from
one end of it to the other; being only 23⅓ feet long at the springing
line while the span is nearly four times this length. The length of
the arch diminishes towards the crown, the ends being in planes not
vertical, but inclining towards each other at the top. Each end has
a batter or inclination of one twenty fourth of its height, or half
an inch to the foot. The arch is built of granite, is 3 feet thick
at the crown and 4 feet at the spring or base. The abutments have a
foundation of solid rock which was excavated in proper form to give
them firm footing. The whole structure presents a degree of stability
which seems to defy the effects of time. The Aqueduct has a cast
iron lining over this bridge (as it has over all of this character): it
is formed of plates five eighths of an inch thick, put together with
screw-bolts and nuts and the joints closely filled with iron cement.
This lining is within the brick work of the bottom and sides of the
channel-way, having four inches of brick outside of it and four inside.
The object of it is to prevent any water dripping through the work,
lest by any means it should fill the exterior masonry of the bridge
with moisture and thus render it liable to injury from frost. Other
precautions are taken in forming the masonry about the channel-way, to
prevent this exuding, and the whole plan of the work shows foresight
and precaution worthy of the highest praise.

From the Sing-Sing Kill the Aqueduct pursues a course along the east
bank of the Hudson and the first work of peculiar interest is the
Aqueduct bridge over the road from Tarrytown to Sing-Sing; before
it reaches this place it passes through three tunnels, over high
foundation walls, and encounters deep excavations.

[Illustration: XIV

  _F. B. Tower._      _W. Bennett. sc._

AQUEDUCT BRIDGE FOR ROAD WAY.]

Plate XIV. is a view of this bridge: it is eleven and a quarter miles
from the dam. The arch is 20 feet span and has a versed sine or rise of
5 feet. From this the Aqueduct passes on, encounters one tunnel, and
reaches the valley of Mill River, twelve miles and three quarters from
the dam. This River runs through Sleepy Hollow and enters the Hudson
about a mile and a half above Tarrytown. The stream is 72 feet below
the bottom of the Aqueduct, and the valley being of considerable width
required a very heavy foundation wall.

Plate XV. is a view of the _Mill River Culvert_: it is 25 feet span and
172 feet long. It is about half a mile east of the road leading from
Tarrytown to Sing-Sing, and to follow the course of the stream which
passes through it, it is three quarters of a mile to the _Old Dutch
Church_, near Tarrytown, which is well known, and familiar to every one
who has read Irving’s “Legend of Sleepy Hollow.”

There is much of the wildness and beauty of nature about this place;
the woods are standing close upon the work,--the stream which passes
through the culvert displays its whitened crests as it tears along
over the rocky bed, and utters its music until it is lost in the depth
of the forest. The wild vines will soon climb the walls and cover
them; vegetation will gather over the work until _nature_ and _art_ be
harmoniously _wedded_.

[Illustration: XV

  _F. B. Tower._      _W. Bennett. sc._

CROTON AQUEDUCT AT MILL RIVER.]

From Mill River the Aqueduct passes the village of Tarrytown and
through one tunnel and over several depressions and streams, reaching
Jewell’s Brook which is seventeen and a half miles from the dam. This
stream enters the Hudson River about two miles below Tarrytown. The
distance from the mouth of the stream to the line of Aqueduct is only a
quarter of a mile.

Plate XVI. is a view of the work at Jewell’s Brook. The culvert for
the stream is 6 feet span and 148 feet long. The larger culvert for a
private road is 14 feet span and 141 feet long. The wall which supports
the Aqueduct at this valley is 50 feet high.

In this case, as in many others, the slope wall which covers the
face of the embankment has an arch turned in it over the top of the
culverts: the object of this is to prevent the direct pressure of
the wall upon the top of the parapet wall, as it would tend to displace
the coping or injure the parapet itself.

[Illustration: XVI

  _F. B. Tower._      _J. W. Hill._

CROTON AQUEDUCT AT JEWELLS BROOK.]

After crossing Jewell’s Brook the Aqueduct passes along the bank of the
Hudson through the village of Dobb’s Ferry, where there is a tunnel
and a valley requiring a culvert, and continues from this place to the
village of Hastings, where there is an Aqueduct bridge over a rail-road
which is used for transporting marble from the quarry near by, to the
landing on the Hudson River.

Plate XVII. is a view of this bridge and the view under the arch shows
the face of the quarry which is near the work; the landing at the river
is near by, giving a very rapid descent from the quarry. The arch has a
span of 16 feet and a rise of 1½ foot. This bridge is twenty-one miles
from the dam.

From Hastings the Aqueduct continues along the bank of the Hudson until
it reaches the village of Yonkers where it leaves the valley of the
Hudson, and passing through a tunnel of considerable length reaches the
valley of Saw-Mill River. At the crossing of this valley there is a
culvert of 20 feet span for a public road to pass under the Aqueduct,
and one having two arches each 25 feet span for the river.

Plate XVIII. is a view of the work at Saw Mill River.

The water is set back at this place by a dam for a mill a short
distance below, giving the stream an appearance of more magnitude than
it really possesses. This point is 25 miles from the dam. The wall
which supports the Aqueduct over this valley is 40 feet high.

From Saw-Mill River the Aqueduct passing through one tunnel soon
reaches Tibbit’s Brook, which it crosses by means of a foundation
wall about 30 feet high and a culvert of 6 feet span, and continues
along the south side of the valley of this brook, thence to the Harlem
River which it crosses at one mile from McComb’s Dam. This crossing is
thirty-three miles from the Croton Dam, and about ten miles from the
City-Hall.

The distance across this valley is about a quarter of a mile, and the
surface of the River is 120 feet below the bottom of the Aqueduct.

In all the examinations which were made with a view of bringing
water from Westchester County, the crossing of this River, or _arm
of the sea_, was regarded as the most formidable work that would be
encountered; various plans were proposed, and in presenting these plans
the project was such as to call into requisition much talent and skill.

An Aqueduct Bridge built of stone, having arches resting upon piers and
abutments, was proposed so as to continue the Aqueduct across with its
regular inclination.

An Inverted Syphon of iron pipes was proposed; the pipes to descend to
a level near the surface of the River, and passing along upon a stone
embankment rise again and connect with the Aqueduct: in this stone
embankment an arch was to be built of sufficient dimensions to allow
free passage of the water of the River.

[Illustration: XVII

  _F. B. Tower._      _J. W. Hill._

CROTON AQUEDUCT AT HASTINGS.]

Another plan was proposed which, though novel in its application
to such purpose, was worthy of consideration: this was to build a
Suspension Bridge of wire cables reaching across the valley, supported
at intervals upon suitable stone piers. This, maintaining the regular
inclination of the Aqueduct, would support iron pipes. The design
was a bold one, yet instances where such bridges have been constructed
for road-ways afford examples of the feasibility and permanency of the
structures, and prove that the application of that principle for this
purpose was not a visionary project.

The plan which was adopted as the most suitable under all the
considerations of economy and security to the work, was a _Low Bridge_
to support an inverted syphon of iron pipes; and the design of it was
as follows: adjacent to the southern shore of the river there was to
be constructed an arch for the channel of the river, of 80 feet span
and springing from abutments 10 feet above high water level; this would
form a passage of 80 feet wide, and the height from high water level
to the under side of the arch at the crown would be 50 feet: south of
this arch followed three other arches on the slope of the rocky hill,
of 35, 30, and 25 feet span: south of these arches a foundation wall
was designed to continue the plane of inclination to the level of the
Aqueduct. From the large arch to the northern shore of the river an
embankment of stone was designed for the support of the pipes, and from
this wall the table land on the northern shore and the slope of the
northern side of the valley, would be excavated to a form to give the
proper position to the pipes descending from the Aqueduct. The lowest
level of the top of this stone embankment was designed to be 4 feet
above flood tide. Suitable parapet walls were designed to be built
along the sides of the embankment to sustain a covering of earth over
the pipes. With the form which was given to this _inverted syphon_,
four pipes, each of 3 feet interior diameter, were found to give a
discharge of water equal to that of the Aqueduct of masonry on the
established inclination.

In accordance with this plan of the _Low Bridge_ the work for
crossing the River was put under contract and some progress made in
its execution, when a law was passed by the Legislature of the State
requiring, instead of this, a structure, the arches of which should
be (over the channel of the river) at least 80 feet span and having a
distance of 100 feet from the level of high water to the under side of
the crown; or to go under the channel of the river by a structure which
should not rise above the bed, and that would leave the present channel
unobstructed. At this time when the work was going on vigorously,
they were compelled to abandon the plan which had been adopted, and
devise one which would comply with the requirements of the law of the
Legislature. A comparison was instituted between the plan of a tunnel
under the bed of the river and that of a bridge of masonry at the
required height above the river.

The tunnel would be at least 300 feet long and the top of the masonry
forming it, would be 18 feet below high water level. In this tunnel the
iron pipes would pass under the River and would be protected from the
salt water.

[Illustration: XVIII

  _F. B. Tower._      _W. Bennett. sc._

CROTON AQUEDUCT AT YONKERS.]

An estimate of the cost of crossing by means of each plan was made,
and the result was in favor of the tunnel under the bed of the River;
but from the imperfect knowledge which could at best be obtained of
the formation of the bed, there was great uncertainty in the estimate
of the cost of the tunnel and the time that would be required for its
completion. The history of the progress of work in the tunnel under the
Thames at London warned them of the difficulties of such a work and
the uncertainty of arriving at a proper estimate of the cost.

In the alternative to which they were driven by the Act of the
Legislature, the plan of an Aqueduct bridge of masonry was adopted as
the proper one for crossing the River; but in establishing its altitude
they complied _only_ with the requisitions of the law, and made the
soffit or under side of the arches at the crown, 100 feet above common
high water level. This would not carry the work up to the level of the
Aqueduct, and would render it necessary to connect the Aqueduct on
each side of the valley by iron pipes which would descend to the level
of the bridge and crossing it rise again to the masonry channel-way.
The plans which were before spoken of for a bridge of masonry across
this valley, contemplated a structure which would maintain the regular
inclination of the Aqueduct; and the channel-way would have been formed
of masonry having a cast iron lining; but a more full consideration
of the subject suggested the propriety of using iron pipes over
the bridge, even if it had been carried up to the grade plane of
the Aqueduct: when the use of iron pipes was determined upon, then
considerations of economy induced them to build the work _only_ high
enough to comply with the requirements of the law.

The plan which has been adopted for building an Aqueduct bridge across
this valley is as follows: on the south shore of the river there is one
arch of 50 feet span, across the river there are eight arches, each of
80 feet span, and on the north shore there are six arches each of 50
feet span; making a range of fifteen arches. From the extremes of this
range of arches, a foundation wall of dry stone work connects with the
Aqueduct.

Two of the piers in the river have a rock foundation and the
foundations for those where rock is not obtained is formed by driving
piles which are placed 2½ feet from centre to centre, and the spaces
between filled with concrete to a depth of 3 feet below the top of them.

Plate XIX. is a view of this bridge, which, when completed, will be
the most interesting work on the whole line of Aqueduct, and in its
appearance will rival the grandeur of similar works of the Ancient
Romans. The height from the foundations in the river, to the top of the
work is 150 feet; the width across the top is 21 feet. The pipes when
laid upon the bridge will be covered with earth to protect them from
frost. The distance between the extremes of the pipes when laid across
the bridge will be 1377⅓ feet. For a distance of 18 feet at each end
of the pipes there is an inclination and the remainder of the distance
across, which is 1341⅓ feet, they are level.

The bottom of the interior of the pipes on the level part, is 12-8/10
feet below the bottom of water way of the Aqueduct on the north side,
and 10-5/10 below that on the south side of the valley.

In the progress of excavating in one of the coffer dams in the
channel of the river a portion of a sunken vessel was found within
the enclosure; it had the appearance of great age. Tradition among
the inhabitants of the vicinity says that at an early period of the
Revolutionary war a vessel was scuttled and sunk in that part of the
river.

[Illustration: XIX

  F. B. Tower.      Napoleon Gimbrede. sc.

CROTON AQUEDUCT AT HARLEM RIVER.]

To a mind fond of antiquarian researches and accustomed to invest
objects of such a nature with associations of the past, this ancient
wreck would furnish a fruitful theme. We are now laying the foundation
of a magnificent work: at the day when this vessel was sunk the
American people were laying the foundation of a new form of government
composed of principles which should support a fabric of enduring
strength and beauty. We are now building a work which will stand as
a monument of the genius and enterprise of the age, but it may be
regarded among the fruits of that civil and religious liberty which has
been reared upon the foundations formed by the people of that day.

The water is now conveyed across this valley by an iron pipe of 3 feet
interior diameter. In the progress of preparing foundations for the
piers of the bridge, an embankment has been formed across the River and
the pipe leaving the Aqueduct on the north side of the valley follows
down the slope of the hill, and crossing over the River upon this
embankment, ascends on the south side again to the Aqueduct. At the
bottom or lowest point in this pipe, a branch pipe of 1 foot diameter
has been connected, extending a distance of 80 feet from it at right
angles and horizontally: the end of this pipe is turned upwards to form
a jet, and iron plates are fastened upon it giving any form that may be
desired to the water issuing. The level of this branch pipe is about
120 feet below the bottom of the Aqueduct on the north side of the
valley; affording an opportunity for a beautiful _jet d’eau_;--such an
one as cannot be obtained at the fountains in the city. From an orifice
of seven inches diameter the column of water rises to a height of 115
feet when there is only a depth of 2 feet of water in the Aqueduct.

To those who had watched over the work during its construction and
looked for its successful operation, this was peculiarly gratifying. To
see the water leap from this opening and rise upwards with such force
and beauty, occasioned pleasing emotions and gave proof that the design
and construction of the work were alike faultless, and that all the
fondest hopes of its projectors would be realized.

The scenery around this fountain added much to its beauty; there it
stood,--a whitened column rising from the river, erect, or shifting its
form, or waving like a forest tree as the winds swayed it, with the
rainbow tints resting upon its spray, while on either side the wooded
hills arose to rival its height: all around was of _nature_; no marble
basin,--no allegorical figures, wrought with exquisite touches of _art_
to lure the eye, but a fountain where nature had adorned the place with
the grandeur and beauty of her rude hills and mountain scenery.

Plate XX. is a distant view of the jet at Harlem River.

From Harlem River the Aqueduct passes along the south bank of the River
for a short distance where it rests in the side of the rocky hill, and
continues over an uneven surface encountering two tunnels before it
reaches Manhattan Valley, which is about 35 miles from the Croton dam.
This valley is four fifths of a mile wide where the Aqueduct meets it,
and the depression is 102 feet below the plane of Aqueduct grade.

[Illustration: XX

  _F. B. Tower._      _W. Bennett._

VIEW OF THE JET AT HARLEM RIVER.]

Here was an opportunity for constructing a work of architectural beauty
and boldness by building up with arcades of arches, one line above
another, and thus maintain the regular inclination of the Aqueduct;
but considerations of economy forbade it. Where the Aqueduct reaches
the north side of the valley, a gate chamber is formed, and from
this, two pipes of 3 feet interior diameter descend to the bottom of
the valley and ascend on the south side to another gate chamber where
they connect with the Aqueduct again. Provision is made for four pipes
of 3 feet diameter, but at present only two are laid which answer the
demands of the city at this time. At the bottom of the valley waste
cocks are provided which discharge into a sewer leading to the Hudson
River, a distance of half a mile.

The lowest point in the pipes is 102 feet below the bottom of the water
way of the Aqueduct on the north side of the valley.

From Manhattan Valley the Aqueduct passes through a tunnel, and
following its course the next work of interest is at Clendinning
Valley, which is thirty-seven miles from the Croton Dam. This valley is
1900 feet across, and the Aqueduct is supported upon a foundation wall
of dry stone work having the face laid in mortar, except over three
streets where bridges are built, having an arch of 30 feet span for the
carriage-way and one on each side of 10½ feet span for the side walks.
These bridges are over 98th, 99th, and 100th streets.

[Illustration: XXI

  _F. B. Tower._      _W. Bennett. sc._

CROTON AQUEDUCT AT CLENDINNING VALLEY.]

Plate XXI. is a view of a portion of the work at Clendinning Valley
showing the three bridges; and comprises a length of about 700 feet.

The greatest height from the foundation to the top of the work is 50
feet, and the width at the bottom of the Aqueduct is 30 feet. Parapet
walls are built on the sides of the wall above the bottom of the
Aqueduct to support a covering of earth over it.

Plate XXII. is an enlarged view of one of the bridges and a portion of
the foundation wall and Aqueduct adjacent to it. The Aqueduct has a
cast iron lining over the bridges like that described at the Sing Sing
Kill.

These bridges are beautiful specimens of mechanical work; indeed the
whole structure across this valley has a degree of neatness, finish,
and taste, not surpassed by any on the line of Aqueduct.

To visit this structure and follow along its whole extent, gives one
an idea of the magnitude of the work which the City of New-York has
accomplished; particularly when it is considered that this is only one
of the _parts_ which make up the _whole_.

From Clendinning Valley the Aqueduct soon reaches the Receiving
Reservoir which is thirty-eight miles from the Croton Dam.

This Reservoir occupies an elevated part of the island between 79th
and 86th streets and between the 6th and 7th Avenues. It covers seven
of the city blocks; is divided into two divisions, one covering three
and the other four of these blocks. It is 1826 feet long and 836 feet
wide from outside to outside of the top of the exterior walls of the
embankment, making an area of thirty-five acres.

[Illustration: XXII

  _F. B. Tower._      _Gimber._

AQUEDUCT BRIDGE AT CLENDINNING VALLEY.]

The situation was chosen as one affording the proper elevation: but its
formation was such as to present difficulties in the way of making the
Reservoir perfectly water-tight; the surface, in tracing it from 79th
to 86th street, was quite undulating, a portion of it in the southern
division of the Reservoir falling below the proposed bottom, and that
portion of the surface which was earth, forming only a covering to
the rock, which over the whole island, presents a singularly broken and
uneven formation. In almost every instance of excavation, the rock was
found above the proposed bottom of the Reservoir, and the difficulty
of preventing leakage along the surface of this rock may easily be
conceived; but considering that measures are taken to prevent such an
occurrence, another difficulty is still presented in the formation of
the rock: the veins and fissures which are frequent in this gneiss
formation would possibly afford courses for the water to escape; the
rock being unsound in many instances, would render such an occurrence
still more liable. A Reservoir has however, been constructed here which
proved, when it was filled with water, that sufficient precaution was
used to prevent leakage, and that the difficulties which presented
themselves before the commencement of the work were no longer to be
feared.

The embankments forming the Reservoir are made of good assorted earth,
and a portion of the bank is puddled, or made compact and impervious by
wetting the earth and using a spade to force it into a compact state.
They are about 20 feet wide on the top, and increase in thickness
towards the base by a slope on both sides: the outside face of the
Reservoir bank has a slope of 1 foot horizontal to 3 feet vertical:
the inside has a slope of 1½ foot horizontal to 1 foot vertical. The
outside face is protected by a stone wall 4 feet thick having the face
laid in mortar: the inside face is protected by a slope wall of stone
laid without mortar, 1¼ foot thick. The top of the bank is 4 feet above
top water line, and the inside slope wall terminates at 2 feet above
top water line, leaving the remainder of the face to be covered with
grass, so as to present a belt of green above the water on the bank
entirely around the Reservoir.

A neat fence bounds the outside and the inside of the top bank, forming
a walk of a mile in length around the entire Reservoir.

The greatest depth of water in the northern division is 20 feet: it was
originally intended to excavate so as to give the water a depth of 20
feet over the whole, but a quantity of rock was left, as the capacity
was thought to be sufficient without taking it out.

The southern division has 30 feet of water where the bottom was filled
in with embankment, and 25 where excavation was made. A portion of rock
was left in this division for the same reason as that in the northern
division; the greater part of it being in the south-west corner, where
it rises above top water line.

The capacity of the Reservoir when both divisions are full, is
150,000,000 Imperial gallons.

The surface of water in the northern division covers 18.13 acres, and
in the southern division, 12.75 acres; making in both nearly 31 acres.

Plate XXIII. is a plan of the Receiving Reservoir.

The Aqueduct enters a gate chamber at A. where there are regulating
gates by which the water can be discharged into the northern division;
or into the southern division by a continuation of the Aqueduct within
the Reservoir bank to the angle B. of that division.

[Illustration: XXIII

        Scale 200 feet to one inch

  _F. B. Tower._      _Gimber._

RECEIVING RESERVOIR]

A connection pipe of cast iron is placed in the division bank at C. to
allow the water to flow from one division into the other in order to
equalize the level; it is placed 10 feet below top water line and has a
stop-cock to close or open it.

At D. is a waste weir, where surplus water may pass off: it is so
arranged that the water, when it rises to a proper level, will flow
into a well, and from this a brick sewer conducts it off into low
grounds, where it finds its way to the East River.

At each place where it is designed to discharge water from the
Reservoir, a gate house is built far enough into it to reach the
greatest depth of water beyond the slope of the embankment. These
houses have a wall upon three sides, and the front which faces the
centre of the Reservoir has a suitable screen of wood work and wooden
gates which regulate the level below the surface for the current
of discharge, and the iron pipes leading from these houses have a
stop-cock by which the discharge is controlled; this stop-cock is in a
vault within the Reservoir bank.

The position of these effluent gate houses is marked on the plan by the
letters E, F, G, H, there being two in each division. A foot bridge
affords convenient access from the bank to the house.

Those houses on the east side denoted by E, F, are the ones from which
pipes lead to the lower or Distributing Reservoir, and those on the
west side denoted by G, H, are intended for supplying the western part
of the city north of the Distributing Reservoir.

There is a vault within the eastern bank to accommodate the pipes
which leave the house E, and passing along, connect with those from
the house F, and thence the pipes continue along 80th street and the
5th Avenue to the Distributing Reservoir. A vault within the west bank
accommodates the pipe which leads from the house H, and intersects
the one from G, passing out at 81st street; thus in this street a pipe
draws from the southern division at G, and a branch of it passing along
within the vault draws from the northern division at H.

Provision has been made on the east side of the Reservoir for supplying
that part of the city when it becomes necessary.

At present there are two pipes leading from this to the Distributing
Reservoir, each 3 feet interior diameter, and they are arranged that
both may draw from the southern division, or one from that, and one
from the northern division. The pipes are placed at a level below the
bottom of the division from which they draw: the bottom of the interior
of those from the southern division being 2 feet below, and that of
those from the northern 5 feet below.

The exterior walls of this Reservoir present a face of _rough-hammered_
masonry, finished in a manner to give them neatness and durability.

As a specimen of mechanical work, this Reservoir will not bear a
comparison with the lower, or Distributing Reservoir, yet the sheet of
water it presents, renders it an object of perhaps greater interest.
This beautiful lake of pure water resting upon the summit of the Island
is truly a pleasing object, and considering its size, is what no other
city can boast of having within its limits.

The Distributing Reservoir is situated on the west side of the 5th
Avenue between 40th and 42nd streets; it is two miles from the
Receiving Reservoir, and about three miles from the City-Hall.

[Illustration: XXIV

  _F. B. Tower._      _Napoleon Gimbrede. sc._

DISTRIBUTING RESERVOIR.]

The question may naturally be asked, why this Reservoir was built,
when the receiving one, of such great capacity, is so near at hand? The
reason for building it, was to obtain an efficient head of water near
to the densely populated parts of the city, and had the formation of
the island been favorable, the Receiving Reservoir would undoubtedly
have been located farther down, bringing the store of water more nearly
in the centre of the city.

Plate XXIV. is an isometrical view of the Distributing Reservoir
showing the front on the 5th Avenue and on 42nd street.

The pipes which leave the Receiving Reservoir follow along the 5th
Avenue until they reach 42nd street, where they turn and enter the
Distributing Reservoir at the base of the central pilaster in that
street, which in the drawing is shown on the right hand side. The
pipes enter at the bottom of the Reservoir and the flow of water is
regulated by _stop-cocks_: the door in the pilaster affords an entrance
to the vault where these _stop-cocks_ are situated. The Reservoir is
divided into two separate divisions by a wall. It is designed to have
three pipes, each 3 feet diameter, to lead from the Receiving to the
Distributing Reservoir and arrangements are made to discharge water
from two of them into one division of the Distributing Reservoir at
a time, or the water may be divided into an equal supply for both
divisions.

On the south side of the Reservoir a pipe of 3 feet diameter leaves
each division and they are arranged with branches so as to draw from
one or both divisions. The house standing across the division wall
is directly over the mouth of the effluent pipes, and is constructed
like those at the Receiving Reservoir, with a gate and screen frame
of timber. The central pilaster on 40th street has an entrance (like
that on 42nd street) to the vault where the _stop-cocks_ are situated
which regulate the discharge from the Reservoir. The pipes leave the
Reservoir at the base of this pilaster and from 40th street, curve into
the 5th Avenue, which they pursue until they reach a convenient point
for diverging to the densely populated parts of the city.

This Reservoir is 420 feet square on the top, measuring on the cornice
of the main wall; it is 425 feet square at the top of the cornice of
the pilasters, and 436 feet square at the base, measuring from outside
to outside of the corner pilasters, covering a little over four acres.
The height of the walls is 45 feet above the streets around, and about
50 feet above the foundations.

The water is 36 feet deep when it reaches the level designed for its
surface (which is 4 feet below the top of the walls) and the surplus,
when the Reservoir is full, passes into a well in the division wall and
is conducted by a sewer in 42nd street to the Hudson River, which is
one mile distant.

The Reservoir is calculated to hold 20,000,000 gallons.

The outside walls are constructed with openings in them so that by
entering the door on 42nd street one may walk entirely around the
Reservoir within the walls. One object of this arrangement is to obtain
the greatest breadth with a given quantity of material; another is
to afford an opportunity to examine the work so as to guard against
leakage; and another, to prevent any moisture finding its way through
to the exterior so as to cause injury to the wall by the action of
frost. This kind of open work of the wall rises to within about 8 feet
of top water line. Inside of these walls an embankment of puddled
earth is formed with suitable breadth of base to give security to the
work, and the face of this earth next to the water is covered with a
wall of hydraulic masonry 1¼ foot thick. The top of the embankment
is covered with stone flagging, forming a walk around the top of the
Reservoir. The bottom of the Reservoir has a covering of concrete 1
foot thick; thus when it is empty there will be seen two basins having
the sides and bottom formed of masonry.

A section of the wall of one side of the Reservoir, including the
embankment, is 17 feet wide at the top, 35 feet wide 16 feet below
the top, and 76 feet wide at the bottom: the cornice projects on the
outside and the coping on the inside so as to make the width of the
top 21 feet. An iron railing bounds the outside and inside of the walk
around the top.

The outside of the Reservoir is built on a slope of one sixth its
height, or two inches to the foot, and an Egyptian cornice projects at
the top of the main walls and the pilasters.

At the entrance on the 5th Avenue a stairway leads up to the top of the
Reservoir.

Terraces are built around at the foot of the walls and covered with
grass, giving a rich finish to the work.

This Reservoir may be considered the termination of the Croton
Aqueduct, and is distant from the _Fountain Reservoir_ on the Croton,
forty and a half miles.

The whole cost of the work, exclusive of the pipes in the city below
the Distributing Reservoir, is about 9,000,000 dollars. Adding to this
the cost of pipes and arrangements for distributing the water in the
city, will make the _total cost of supplying the city of New-York with
water about 12,000,000 dollars_.[7]

The water was introduced into the Distributing Reservoir on the 4th of
July, 1842, and the event was hailed by the citizens of New-York with
an interest scarcely less than that pervading the whole American people
at the remembrance of the event, the anniversary of which, was on that
day celebrated.

At an hour when the firing of guns and the ringing of bells had
aroused but few from their slumbers, and ere the rays of the morning
sun had gilded the city domes, the waters of the Croton gushed up
into the Reservoir and wandered about its bottom as if to examine the
magnificent structure; or to find a resting place in the _temple_
towards which they had made a pilgrimage.

The national flag floated out from each corner of the Reservoir,
and during the day thousands of the citizens visited it giving
demonstrations of joy and satisfaction at the accomplishment of this
great work.

The 14th of October following was set apart as a day for the
celebration of the introduction of the water into the city: and it was
an occasion of unrestrained enthusiasm and joy. Multitudes came in from
the country around, and from sister cities:--all business was laid
aside for the pleasing ceremonies of the day, and the Croton water,
with the beauty and grandeur of its fountains, met with a welcome which
showed that its value was appreciated.

The advantages, the comforts and blessings of this supply of pure water
will be appreciated as the city extends the means for its use, and
the time is not distant when she will regard it as a treasure which
was cheaply purchased, and will proudly point to the noble work which
she has achieved not only as an example of her munificence, but as an
illustration of what _art_ and _science_ can accomplish.

With cleanly streets, and the public parks beautified with the
fountains which send forth cooling and refreshing vapours upon the
air, the citizens will forget to leave the city during the warm
months of summer, and the _sea-shore_, the _mountain-tops_, and
_watering-places_, will fancy their beauty has faded, since they cease
to be visited.

The foreigner who visits this country will find the Croton Aqueduct an
interesting specimen of our _public works_, and will be pleased with a
pedestrian tour along the line of work to the Fountain Reservoir among
the hills of the Croton. Besides becoming acquainted with the important
features of the work, he may enjoy much that is beautiful in American
scenery. In his course along the Aqueduct he may see the majestic
palisades which for a distance _wall_ the right bank of the Hudson;
he may view the Tappan and Haverstraw bays with their ever-varying
scenery, and the dark gorge where the Hudson emerges from the Highlands
with its white bosom.

Along the Aqueduct there are also many picturesque scenes where the
mountain stream leaps among the rocks in the deep ravine which guides
its course to the Hudson.

The country is interesting also from the associations with which it has
been invested by the pen of our novelists. The region of the Croton
where the Fountain Reservoir is formed, is a part of the district where
the scene of the “Tale of the Neutral Ground” is laid; and one may
fancy there the figure of Harvey Birch, beneath his _pondrous pack_,
casting a shadow at night along the moon-lit slopes.

Leaving the valley of the Croton we come out upon the Hudson at the
head of the “_great waters of the Tappan Zee_,” beyond which the early
inhabitants of _New-Amsterdam_ dared not to voyage without first
“settling their family affairs, and making their wills.”

As we approach Tarrytown we find the localities which were pictured
in the “Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” and easily recognize the Old Dutch
Church near which the affrighted Ichabod Crane was so sadly unhorsed by
the headless Hessian. We find in this vicinity also, the place noted as
the “_spot where the unfortunate ‘Andre’ was captured_.”

Besides the romantic and diversified scenery of the Hudson which is in
view from the line of Aqueduct, the visitor may find highly cultivated
grounds and delightful country seats, and among them that of our
distinguished countryman, Washington Irving, where he sought a rural
retirement for his literary pursuits. But it is unnecessary to speak
further of the objects which are calculated to interest the visitor
to this part of the country: we would only invite the stranger who
visits the city of New-York to go forth and visit her noble Aqueduct:
when he has become acquainted with the magnitude and grandeur of its
construction, then he may turn aside for prospects to admire and
incidents to interest.




APPENDIX.

BY CHARLES A. LEE, M. D.


WATER.

(_Chiefly compiled from the works of Thomson, Pereira, Whewell and
others._)

Water was regarded by the ancients as an elementary substance, and as
a constituent of most other bodies. This opinion was somewhat modified
by the experiments of Van Helmont and Mr. Boyle, who maintained that it
could be changed into all vegetable substances, as well as into earth;
but it was substantially held until the middle of the last century,
(1781,) when Mr. Cavendish proved that this liquid was a compound of
oxygen and hydrogen.


NATURAL HISTORY. _In the inorganized kingdom._

Water is very generally diffused over the surface of the globe, forming
seas, lakes, and rivers; it is mechanically disseminated among rocks,
constitutes an essential part of some minerals, and always exists to
a greater or less extent, in the atmosphere. In the air, water is
formed in two states; as a _vapor_ (which makes about one-seventieth
by volume, or one one-hundredth by weight of the atmosphere) it is
supposed to be the cause of the blue color to the sky; and in a
_vesicular form_, in which state it constitutes the clouds. Terrestrial
water forms about three-fourths of the surface of the terraqueous
globe. The average depth of the ocean is calculated at between two and
three miles. Now as the height of dry land above the surface of the sea
is less than two miles, it is evident, that if the present dry land
were distributed over the bottom of the ocean, the surface of the globe
would present a mass of waters a mile in depth. On the supposition
that the mean depth of the sea is not greater than the fourth part
of a mile, the solid contents of the ocean would be 32,058,939 cubic
miles (_Thomson’s Chemistry_.) The quantity of water mechanically
disseminated through rocks, which serve merely as a natural reservoir
for the time, must be, in the aggregate, very considerable, though
it is impossible to form any very accurate estimate of it. Even in
those rocks which merely supply springs, the amount of disseminated
water must be enormous; for they so far resemble filters, that are
necessarily charged with the fluid before they permit it to pass
out. De La Beche has advanced the opinion that capillary attraction
has great power, both in mechanically disseminating water among
rocks, and in retaining it in them when so disseminated, and that it
therefore keeps them, to a certain extent, saturated with moisture, and
assists in promoting a more equal flow of water in springs. Capillary
attraction and gravity probably carry water down far beyond those
situations where it can be returned in springs, at least cold springs,
for there are certain circumstances connected with those which are
thermal, which go to prove, that the water thrown up by them may have
percolated to considerable depths. It is very evident that most rocks
contain disseminated moisture, for there are few which, when exposed
to heat, do not give water. Sulphate of lime, for example, or plaster
of paris, contains about 20 per cent., and common serpentine, as much
as 15 per cent. of it. Soap-stone has 4 per cent., and even quartz 2
per cent. of water, in their composition. This fluid exists in minerals
either as _water of crystallization_, or combined as a _hydrate_.

But though water is thus generally diffused over the surface of the
globe, yet it is not found perfectly pure in any place; even the
rain and the snow that descend from the clouds, the condensation, as
it were, of a natural distillation, are slightly tainted by saline
matters; which circumstance can only arise from the great solvent
power of water enabling it to take up a portion of most substances
with which it comes into contact, in its natural condition. In many
lakes, and in the ocean, the quantity of saline matter is so great as
to render it unfit for diluent purposes; but, when sea-water freezes,
the saline impregnations are deposited; and the ice affords fresh
water. In the state in which water is generally employed as a diluent,
its impregnations are in small quantity, and not usually sufficient
either to dim its transparency, or to give it color, smell, or taste,
and consequently to render it unfit for the ordinary purposes of life.
Water, therefore, which is transparent, colorless, inodorous, and
tasteless, is called _good_ and _pure_, and none other can be called
such; though some medical writers are of opinion, that it is not
necessary it should be in this pure state for common use. Such opinion
however is undoubtedly erroneous--

II. _In the organized kingdom._ Water enters largely into the
composition of organic substances. It constitutes, at least, four
fifths of the weight of the animal tissues, being the source of their
physical properties, extensibility and flexibility. This water is
not chemically combined in them: for it is gradually given off by
evaporation, and can be extracted at once by strong pressure between
blotting-paper. When deprived of its water, animal matter becomes
wholly insusceptible of vitality; except in the case of some of the
lower animals, which, as well as some plants, revive when again
moistened. According to Chevreul, pure water alone can reduce organized
substances to this state of softness; although salt water, alcohol,
ether, and oil, are also imbibed by dry animal textures. Moist animal
tissues, by virtue of their porosity, allow soluble matters, which
come into contact with them, to be dissolved by the water which they
contain, and which oils their pores: if the matters are already in
solution, they are imparted by their solutions to the water of the
tissues. Gaseous substances are taken up in the same way. Water exists
in nearly as large a proportion in vegetable as in animal substances.

_Properties._ Pure water, as has already been stated, is a transparent
liquid without color, taste, or smell. Some have doubted whether it
is entirely inodorous, from the fact that the camel, and some other
animals, can scent water to a considerable distance, and also whether
it can be called colorless, as all large masses of water have a
bluish-green color. This phenomenon is, however, probably owing to the
presence of foreign matters. It refracts light powerfully, is a slow
conductor of heat, when its internal movements are prevented, and an
imperfect conductor of electricity. It is almost incompressible, a
pressure equal to 2000 atmospheres occasioning a diminution of only
one-ninth of its bulk; or, when submitted to a compressing force
equal to 30,000 lbs. on the square inch, 14 volumes of this fluid are
condensed into 13 volumes; proving that it is elastic. Water being the
substance most easily procured in every part of the earth in a state
of purity, it has been chosen by universal consent, to represent the
unit of the specific gravity of all solid and liquid bodies. A cubic
inch of water at 60° Fah. weighs 255.5 grains; so that this fluid is
about 815 times heavier than atmospheric air, but being the standard
to which the weight of all other substances is referred, its specific
weight is said to be 1. Accordingly when we say that the specific
gravity of a body is _two_ we mean that it weighs twice as much as
the same volume of water would do. Water unites with both acids and
bases, but without destroying their acid or basic properties. Thus
the crystallized vegetable acids, tartaric, citric, and oxalic, are
atomic combinations of water with acids. Caustic potash (potassa fusa)
and slaked lime may be instanced as compounds of water, and basic
substances; these are therefore called _hydrates_. The crystallized
salts, such as alum, common salt, sulphate of soda, sulphate of
magnesia, borate of soda, (borax,) &c., contain a large amount of
water as a chemical constituent, called water of crystallization. Water
rapidly absorbs some gases, as ammonia, fluoride of boron, &c., but it
is neither combustible, nor, under ordinary circumstances, a supporter
of combustion.

_Composition._ The composition of water is determined both by analysis
and synthesis. If this liquid be submitted to the influence of a
volcanic battery, it is decomposed into two gases, namely one volume
of oxygen and two volumes of hydrogen. These gases, in the proportions
just mentioned, may be made to recombine, and form water by heat,
electricity, or spongy platinum, as water consists of one equivalent of
hydrogen, 1 and one of oxygen, 8 = 9; and in volume, of one volume of
hydrogen, and half a volume of oxygen, condensed into aqueous vapor or
steam we can easily calculate the specific gravity of steam, for its
density will be, .0689 (Sp. gr. of hydrogen) + .5512 (half the Sp. gr.
of oxygen) = .6201.


_Water as affected by the laws of Heat._

As the extensive and important functions which water discharges in
the economy of nature, depend mainly on the manner in which it is
affected by the laws of heat, a few remarks on this subject may not be
inappropriate to this place.

Heat is communicated through water in a different manner, from that
observed in relation to solids, for it is not _conducted_ as in them,
from one particle to another, but carried with the parts of the fluid
by means of an intestine motion. Water expands and becomes lighter
by heat, and therefore it is, that if the upper portion of water be
cooled below the lower, the former descends, and the latter rises to
take its place. Thus a constant counter-current is kept up, and the
whole body of water has to cool down to near the freezing point, before
congelation can take place. This equalization of temperature, moreover,
takes place much more rapidly, than it would do in a solid body; hence
alternations of heat and cold, as day and night, summer and winter,
produce in water, inequalities of temperature much smaller than those
which occur in a solid body.

Hence it is, that the ocean, which covers so large a portion of the
earth’s surface, produces the effect of making the alternations of heat
and cold much less violent than they would be if it were absent. The
different temperatures of its upper and lower parts produce a current
which draws the seas, and by means of the seas, the air, towards the
mean temperature. This circulation is also carried on between distant
tracts of the ocean; as we see in the case of the Gulf Stream, which
rushing from the Gulf of Mexico across the Atlantic to the western
shores of Europe, carries with it a portion of the heat of equatorial
climes to the colder northern regions, and bringing back in return
a portion of the cold from the same higher latitudes. Thus, large
portions of the earth are rendered habitable to man, which, without
the existence of such a law, would be doomed to perpetual frost
and solitude. This influence of the ocean on temperature, explains
satisfactorily some peculiarities in the climates of certain tracts
and islands, for example, why London is cooler in summer, and hotter
in winter than Paris. But though water expands by heat and contracts
by cold, there is even a limit to this law, for had there not been,
the lower parts of water would have frozen first, and thus entire
lakes, rivers and oceans, perhaps, become solid, and had they become
thus frozen, they would have remained so; for, as the heat at the
surface would not have descended far through the colder parts, the main
body of the ice must forever have remained solid, as in the arctic
circle. To obviate this great disadvantage, water contracts by the
increase of cold till we come _near_ the freezing temperature, (40°
F.) when it begins to expand and continues so to do till it freezes;
at 32° F. Hence, water at 40° is at its greatest density and will lie
at the bottom, with cooler water or ice floating above it. However
much the surface be cooled, water colder than 40° cannot descend to
displace water warmer than itself. Hence we never can have ice formed
at the bottom of deep water, though it is not uncommon to find it
thus situated, in shallow streams or rivers of rapid flow. Here the
temperature of the whole body of water is brought down to the freezing
point, and in freezing the ice adheres to the sides and bottom of the
stream. What a beautiful provision is this, that the coldest water
should rise to the surface, and there freeze and remain, exposed to
the warmth of the sun-beams and the air, to be speedily dissolved upon
the return of spring! This is owing to the well known fact, that in
the act of freezing a still further expansion takes place, so that
the specific gravity of ice is less than water of any temperature,
and consequently floats upon the surface. We thus see that by the
contraction of water by cold, the temperature of various times and
places is equalized, though were that contraction without limit, a
great portion of the earth would be bound in fetters of ice. Such a
disastrous result, is prevented by the substitution of expansion for
contraction, when the temperature is reduced to 40°, and the benevolent
purposes of an all-wise Designer, are made still more manifest by the
further expansion of water in the act of freezing. As water becomes
ice by cold, it becomes _steam_ by heat. We generally understand by
steam the vapor of hot water, but steam or vapor rises from water
at all temperatures, however low, and even from ice. The expansive
force of this vapor increases rapidly as the heat increases, but yet
in all cases the surface of water is covered with an atmosphere of
aqueous vapor, the pressure, or _tension_ of which is limited by the
temperature of the water. If, therefore, the vapor is not confined,
causing the surface of water to be pressed upon, evaporation will
take place, and thus there must, according to this law, always exist
an atmosphere of aqueous vapor, the tension of which may be compared
with that of our common atmosphere. Now the pressure of the latter
is measured by the barometrical column, about 30 inches of mercury,
while that of watery vapor is equal to one inch of mercury at the
constituent temperature of 80 degrees, and to one fifth of an inch at
the temperature of 32 degrees.

If the atmosphere of air by which we are supported were annihilated,
there would still remain, an atmosphere of aqueous vapor, arising from
the waters and moist parts of the earth, but in the existing state of
things this vapor rises _in_ the atmosphere of dry air, and thus its
distribution and effects are materially influenced by the vehicle in
which it is thus carried.

The moisture thus floating at all times in the air, serves for the
support of vegetable life, even in countries where rain seldom if
ever falls. It is absorbed by the leaves of living plants, which
thus increase in weight even when suspended in the atmosphere and
disconnected with the soil. During intense heats, and when the soil is
parched and dry, we see the life of plants thus preserved until the
earth is again refreshed with showers, and the roots supplied with
their wonted moisture.

_Clouds_, are produced when aqueous vapor returns to the state of
water; and this process is called _condensation_. Whenever the
temperature becomes lower than the constituent temperature, requisite
for the maintenance of the vapory state, some of the vapor, or
invisible steam, will be condensed, and become water. This may be
seen illustrated in the condensation of the steam, as it issues from
the spout of a tea-kettle. Clouds not only moderate the fervor of the
sun, but they also check radiation from the earth, for we find that
the coldest nights are those which occur under a cloudless winter sky.
The use of clouds in the formation of rain, is too obvious to need
pointing out more particularly. _Snow_ is frozen vapour aggregated by
a confused action of crystalline laws, and _ice_ is water, solidified
while in its fluid state, by the same crystalline forces. These are bad
conductors of cold, and when the ground is covered with snow, or the
surface of the soil, or if the water is frozen, the roots or bulbs of
plants beneath are protected by the congealed water from the influence
of the atmosphere, the temperature of which in northern winters, is
usually very much below the freezing point; and this water becomes the
first nourishment of the plant, in early spring. The expansion of water
during its congelation, at which time its volume increases one twelfth,
and its contraction in bulk during a thaw, tend to pulverize the soil,
to separate its parts from each other, and to make it more permeable to
the influence of the air.

When ice changes to water, or water to steam, although at an invariable
degree of temperature, yet the change is not sudden, but gradual.
When the heat reaches the point, at which thawing or boiling takes
place, the temperature makes a stand; a portion of it disappears, or
becomes _latent_, as it is called; thus the temperature of ice cannot
be raised, till the whole is thawed, nor that of boiling water, till
it has all been converted into steam; all the heat that is applied
being absorbed in producing these changes. Were it not for this law of
latent heat, thaw and evaporation would be instantaneous, we should be
overwhelmed with floods, at the first glow of warmth in the spring, and
in heating water the whole would flash instantaneously into steam upon
reaching the boiling point.

It is through the same relations of water to heat, that springs are
supplied--for these undoubtedly draw their principal supplies from
rain. Mr. Dalton has calculated that the quantity of rain which falls
in England is 36 inches a year. Of this he reckoned that 13 inches flow
off to the sea by the rivers, and that the remaining 23 inches are
raised again from the ground by evaporation. The 13 inches of water
are of course supplied by evaporation from the sea, and are carried
back to the land through the atmosphere. Vapor is perpetually rising
from the ocean, and is condensed by cold in the hills and high lands,
as is easily recognized by the mists and rains, which are frequent in
such regions; whence it descends through their pores and crevices,
till it is deflected, collected and conducted out to the sea, by some
stratum or channel which is water-tight, thus keeping up a perpetual
and compound circulation. In every country these two portions of the
aqueous circulation have their regular and nearly constant proportion;
and their due distribution appears to be necessary to its organic
health, to the habits of vegetables and of man. This circulation goes
on from year to year as regularly as that of the blood, in the veins
and arteries of the human system, and though maintained by a very
different machinery, is no less clearly adapted to its purposes. In
short the properties of water which regard heat make one vast watering
engine of the atmosphere, (_Whewell_.)

COMMON WATER. Under this head are included the waters commonly known as
_rain_, _spring_, _river_, _well_ or _pump_, _lake_ and _marsh waters_.
Thomson includes _ice_, and _snow water_, _spring_ and _river water_,
and _lake water_ under _rain water_, as it is from this source that
they are chiefly supplied.

RAIN WATER is the purest kind of all natural waters, though subject to
some variations. Thus, when collected in large towns or cities, it is
less pure than when obtained in the country; moreover it is usually
loaded with impurities at the commencement of a shower, but after some
hours of continuous rain it becomes nearly pure; for the first water
which falls brings down the various foreign matters suspended in the
atmosphere. In specific gravity, it scarcely differs from distilled
water. It nevertheless generally holds in solution common air, carbonic
acid, carbonate of lime, chloride of lime, and a trace of nitric acid.
If it be collected from the roofs of houses, after it has rained for
some time, it contains sulphate of lime and occasionally carbonate
of lead. The quantity of common air in rain water does not exceed 3½
cubic inches in 100 cubic inches of water; it contains more oxygen than
atmospherical air; the same quantity of rain water contains one inch of
carbonic acid gas.

These combinations, in the small quantities in which they exist, in no
degree injure the diluent properties of rain water. It is indeed to
the presence of the two elastic gases, that rain water owes the taste
which renders it palatable to animals and useful to vegetables. Ice
water, being destitute of these gases is extremely vapid; fish cannot
live in it; and it does not seem either to quench thirst or to be so
complete a solvent in the stomach as rain water. Carbonate of ammonia
is also another ingredient. It is derived from the putrefaction of
nitrogenous substances. When several hundred pounds of rain water were
distilled by Liebig, in a copper still, and the first two or three
pounds evaporated with the addition of a little muriatic acid, he
found a very distinct crystallization of sal-ammoniac, the crystals
having a brown or yellow color. “It is worthy of observation,” says
Liebig, “that the ammonia contained in rain and snow water possesses
an offensive smell of perspiration and animal excrements, a fact which
leaves no doubt respecting its origin.” It is owing to the presence of
carbonate of ammonia that rain water owes its _softer_ feel than pure
distilled water. According to Liebig, it is the atmospheric ammonia
which furnishes the nitrogen of plants. The traces of nitric acid which
have been detected in the air, are referable to the oxidation of the
constituents of ammonia; and not to the direct union of the oxygen and
free nitrogen of the atmosphere. Dr. Pereira states that a carbonaceous
(sooty) substance, and traces of sulphates, chlorides, and calcareous
matter, are the usual impurities of the first rain water of a shower.
Zimmerman found oxide of iron and chloride potassium in rain water;
other chemists have been able to detect no iron in it, but have found
meteoric iron and nickel in dew. Brande detected in it, chloride of
sodium, chloride of magnesium, sulphate and carbonate of magnesium,
sulphate of lime, and oxide of manganese. The putrefaction to which
rain water is subject, shows that some organic matter is present. The
term _pyrrhin_ (from πυρρος red) has been applied by Zimmerman to
an atmospheric organic substance which reddens solutions of silver.
Whenever rain water is collected near large towns, it should be boiled
and strained before use, as it contains less saline impregnation than
other kinds of natural waters, it is more apt to become contaminated
with lead from roofs, gutters, cisterns, and water pipes. To purify
rain water and render it useful, for the delicate purposes of chemical
experiment, Morveau recommends dropping into it a little barytic
water and then exposing it for some time to the atmospheric air.
This combines with the carbonic acid, which being the solvent of the
carbonate of lime, both it and the carbonate of baryta are precipitated
as insoluble salts. Instead of exposing it to the atmosphere, it may be
poured from one vessel to another; by which means not only the minute
portion of barytic water is dispersed through the rain water, and
brought into contact with the carbonic acid, but it involves a great
portion of air in its substance, which improves both the taste and the
utility of the fluid.

_Snow water_, as we have already stated, is destitute of air and
other gaseous matters found in rain. According to Liebig, it contains
ammonia. It has long been a popular, but erroneous opinion, that it
was injurious to health, and had a tendency to produce bronchocele.
But this malady occurs at Sumatra, where ice and snow are never seen;
while, on the contrary, the disease is quite unknown in Chili and
Thibet, although the rivers of these countries are chiefly supplied by
the melting of the snow, with which the mountains are covered. Ice is
said not to quench thirst, but on the contrary to augment it, and that
the natives of the Arctic regions prefer enduring the utmost extremity
of this feeling, rather than attempt to remove it by eating of snow,[8]
(_Captain Ross_.)

2. SPRING WATER. Rain water, when it falls on high grounds, enters the
soil and filtrates through it, until it is stopped by some natural
obstacle, when it pushes upwards, and welling out upon the surface,
forms springs; the water is therefore merely a modification of rain
water. During its passage, however, it almost always takes up some
soluble matters, which of course vary according to the nature of
the soil. It is purest when it passes through sand or gravel; in a
limestone region, it always contains more or less of the sulphate and
carbonate of lime, and it generally contains a trace of common salt,
and the usual proportions of air and carbonic acid gas. The presence of
these is detected by subacetate of lead, which displays the smallest
portion of carbonic acid or a carbonate, and nitrate of silver, which
detects the muriates by the formation of muriate of silver.

Water from melted _ice_ is perfectly wholesome, and is drunk during
the summer season, wherever the climate will admit of its being
collected and preserved at a moderate expense. In this form, it is a
luxury--almost a _necessary_--in the middle states of this country more
particularly, “where,” Dr. Dunglison remarks, “there is not a tavern on
the road, on the eastern side of the Blue Ridge, that does not furnish
ice to the traveller in any abundance.” When sea-water freezes, the ice
does not contain the salts. Consequently, when melted, it affords fresh
water, and according to the voyagers in high northern and southern
latitudes, the water has been found sweet, soft, and wholesome.

_River Water._ This is a mixture of rain and spring water, and when
deprived of the matters which it frequently holds in suspension, is
generally of considerable purity. Mountain streams, which generally
issue from siliceous rocks, and run over stony or pebbly beds, are,
for the most part, comparatively pure and soft. The river water of
New-England, and the other hilly portions of the United States,
is usually of this description, though in the time of floods, and
after heavy rains, they contain much sedimentary matter. River water
gradually deposits much of its earthy salts as it flows, and becomes
purer by exposure; it therefore generally contains less calcareous
matter than spring water; its specific gravity is less, and its taste
more vapid. It, however, more or less partakes of the nature of the
soil over which it flows; consequently some rivers, whose waters were
pure and excellent at their source, lose these properties before they
mingle with the sea. The water of the Thames, for example, in England,
which is originally very soft and pure, becomes so loaded with animal
and vegetable matter from the towns and villages on its banks, that
after being kept a month or two in a closed cask, on opening it, a
quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, of the most offensive odor
escapes, and the water is so black and nauseous as to be unfit for
use. But on racking it off, it clears, depositing a quantity of slimy
mud, and becomes remarkably clear, sweet and palatable. As the matters
deposited in such rivers are merely mingled with the body of the
water, which is too large, and too changing, to admit of any permanent
taint from solution, filtration, or even the natural deposition of the
ingredients fits them for every domestic and medicinal purpose.

       *       *       *       *       *

The following Table shows the solid contents of the Thames water[9]
London, and of the Croton water[10] in the city of New-York.

 +-----------------------+-----------------------++----------------------+
 |                       |     THAMES WATER.     ||    CROTON WATER.     |
 |                       +------------+----------++---------+------------+
 |  QUANTITY OF WATER.   |_Brentford._|_Chelsea._|| At its  |   In the   |
 |  1 Gallon = 10 lbs.   | Source of  |  Source  || source, |  City of   |
 |   Avoirdupois, at     | the Grand  |  of the  || _Croton | _New-York_ |
 | 62° Fah., or 70, grs. |  Junction  | Chelsea  || Lake._  |   as it    |
 |   Avoirdupois.        |Water Works |  Water   ||         |issues from |
 |                       |  Company.  |  Works   ||         | the pipes. |
 |                       |            | Company. ||         |            |
 +-----------------------+------------+----------++---------+------------+
 |                       |   Grains.  |  Grains. || Grains. |   Grains.  |
 |Carbonate of Lime,     |   16·000   |  16·500  ||  1·42   |    1·52    |
 |Sulphate of Lime,   }  |            |          ||   ·00   |     ·44    |
 |Chloride of Sodium, }  |    3·400   |   2·900  ||         |            |
 |Oxide of Iron,       } |            |          ||         |            |
 |Silica,              } |    very    |          ||         |            |
 |Magnesia,            } |   minute   |  Ditto.  ||   ·34   |     ·46    |
 |Carbonaceous Matter, } |  portions. |          ||         |            |
 |Chloride of Magnesium,}|            |          ||   ·86   |     ·90    |
 |Chloride of Calcium,  }|            |          ||         |            |
 |Carbonate of Magnesia, |            |          ||   ·70   |     ·84    |
 |                       |            |          ||         |            |
 |Solid matter held in   |            |          ||         |            |
 |  solution,            |   19·400   |  19·400  ||  2·98   |    3·70    |
 |Mechanical impurity,   |    0·368   |   0·238  ||   ·34   |     ·46    |
 |                       +------------+----------++---------+------------+
 |Total solid matter,    |   19·768   |  19·638  ||  3·32   |    4·16    |
 +-----------------------+------------+----------++---------+------------+

Analysis of the Croton and Schuylkill waters, by J. C. Booth, Professor
of Chemistry to the Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania, and H. M. Boye,
of Philadelphia.

                            _Croton Water._          _Schuylkill Water._
                         In 100     gr. in 1       In 100       gr. in 1
                          parts        gall.        parts          gall.
 Carbonate of Lime,       45.86        2.293        53.67          2.190
 Carbonate of Magnesia,   18.78         .939        11.87          0.484
 Alkaline Carbonates,     16.57         .828         4.53          0.185
 Alkaline Chlorides,       3.87         .193         3.75          0.153
 Oxide of Iron,            2.21         .110
 Silica,                   7.18         .359         9.68          0.395
 Organic Matter,           5.53         .276         0.88          0.036
                         ------        -----
                  Parts, 100.00   grs. 4.998

 Alumina and Oxide of Iron,                          1.88          0.077
 Alkaline Sulphates,                                13.74          0.560
                                                    -----          -----
                                               Parts, 100     grs. 4.080

The Croton water was taken from the Croton dam, and when perfectly
clear was found, as appears by the above analysis to contain 4.998,
or about _five_ grains of solid matter to the gallon. The Schuylkill
water was taken from the middle basin on Fair Mount, and contained
4.08 grains of solid matter to the gallon. The Croton differs from
the Schuylkill water in containing a larger amount of the alkaline
carbonates, and of the carbonate of magnesia, while it contains less
carbonate of lime, and is entirely destitute of the alkaline sulphates,
of which the Schuylkill contains 13.74 parts in 100 of the total solid
matters, though amounting to only one half a grain to the gallon.

It appears from the above table, that the amount of impurities
contained in the Thames water, exceeds those of the Croton by nearly
six fold, and that the quantity of lime, held in solution in the
former, surpasses that of the latter, about fifteen times. The Thames
water differs also from the Croton, in the circumstance that it
contains an appreciable quantity of chloride of sodium, or common salt
of which the Croton is entirely free. There are but very few streams to
be found, whose waters contain less than 4.16 grains of solid matter
to the gallon. The carbonate of lime is held in solution by carbonic
acid, forming bicarbonate of lime. By boiling, this acid is expelled,
and the carbonate of lime is precipitated on the sides of the vessel,
constituting the _fur_ of the tea-kettle, and the _crust_ of boilers.
River water always contains a quarter or less quantity of organic
matter in suspension or solution. As a general rule, the quantity is
too small to produce any decidedly injurious effect, but physicians and
medical writers agree in the opinion that water impregnated with it to
any great extent must be deleterious. Where the quantity of decomposing
matter is too small to produce any immediately obvious effects, it
is difficult to procure any decisive evidence of its influence on
the system. When the amount is considerable, it causes dysentery and
fevers, often of a highly fatal character. In a trial at Nottingham,
England, in 1836, it was proved that dysentery of an aggravated form,
was caused in cattle by the use of water contaminated with putrescent
vegetable matter, produced by the refuse of a starch manufactory. The
fish, (perch, pike, roach, dace, &c.,) and frogs in the pond, through
which the brook ran, were destroyed, and all the animals which drank of
the water became seriously ill, and many of them died with the symptoms
of dysentery. It was, moreover, shown, that the animals sometimes
refused to drink the water, that the mortality was in proportion to
the quantity of starch made at different times; and that subsequently,
when the putrescent matter was not allowed to pass into the brook, but
was conveyed to a river at some distance, the fish and frogs began
to return, and the mortality ceased among the cattle. There are many
instances on record where troops have sickened and many died of putrid
fever and dysentery, from drinking the water of stagnant pools and
ditches or of rivers, as of the river Lee, near Cork, (Ireland,) which,
in passing through the city, receives the contents of the sewers from
the houses, and is otherwise unwholesome.

The organic matter contained in river water consists chiefly of the
exuviæ of animal and vegetable substances, but another class of
impurities consists of living beings, (animals and vegetables.) The
aquatic animals, which have, from time to time, been exhibited in this
city by means of the solar microscope, are collected in stagnant pools,
and are not found in river or well water. The quantity of organic
matter contained in the Croton must be extremely small, as this,
together with the silex, iron, and magnesia, amount to only 4/10ths of
one grain to the gallon.

WELL WATER,--or _pump_ water, as it is often called in cities, is
essentially the same as spring water, but liable to impregnation,
owing to the land springs filtering through the walls, and conveying
impurities into it. This is sometimes prevented by lining them with
cast-iron cylinders, or by bricks laid in water-cement. Dr. Percival
affirms, that bricks harden the softest water, and give it an aluminous
impregnation. The old wells must, therefore, furnish much purer water
than the more recent, as the soluble particles are gradually washed
away. It contains a greater proportion of earthy salts, and of air,
and has a greater specific gravity than other spring waters. Owing
to the fact, that it contains a larger quantity of bicarbonate and
sulphate of lime, than river water, it decomposes and curdles soap,
and is then denominated _hard water_, to distinguish it from those
waters which mix with soap, and are therefore called _soft waters_.
The reason that hard water does not form a pure opaline solution
with soap, is, because the lime of the calcareous salts, chiefly the
_sulphate_, forms an insoluble compound with the margaric and oleic
acids of the soap. Here a double decomposition ensues, the sulphuric
acid unites with the alkali of the soap, setting free the fatty acids,
which unite with the lime to form an insoluble earthy soap. Hard water
is a less perfect solvent of organic matter than soft water; hence in
the preparation of infusions and decoctions, and for many economical
purposes, as making tea and coffee, and brewing, it is much inferior
to soft water, and for the same reasons it is improper as a drink in
dyspeptic affections, causing irritation, and a sensation of weight
in the stomach. The abundance of this earthy salt in the water of
Paris, and London, of many parts of Switzerland and this country, cause
uncomfortable feelings in strangers who visit these places. It is also
said to produce calculous complaints in the inhabitants, a result which
might be expected, owing to the low solvent power of the water not
being sufficient to carry off the animal acid, which concretes in the
kidneys to form calculi.[11] Well water can be easily freed from these
earthy salts; boiling precipitates the carbonate of lime by driving
off the carbonic acid which holds it in solution; and the addition of
a little carbonate of soda precipitates the lime, if any exist in the
water. Many persons prefer the taste of hard water to that of soft, and
a change from one to the other, frequently causes a derangement of the
digestive organs. The briskness, and rapidity of this and other water
is owing to the air, and carbonic acid mixed with it. The air contained
in water, has a larger proportion of oxygen than atmospheric air, and
hence it is better adapted for the respiration of animals.

The water procured from wells in the city of New-York, has gradually
been growing more and more impure, as the city has increased in size,
until a very large proportion of it, is entirely unfit for culinary
and dietetic purposes. That in the lower part of the city, has always
been, more or less, brackish, owing to the percolation of the salt
water from the north and east rivers through the loose sandy soil, thus
giving them a distinct saline impregnation. The amount of impurities
contained in these waters, varies, therefore, in different parts of the
city, according to its elevation, and the denseness of the population.
A gallon of water from the well belonging to the Manhattan Company
in Reade-street, yielded 125 grains of solid matter; while the same
quantity of water, from their well in Bleecker-street, yielded 20
grains, and in 13th street, 14 grains. A gallon of water taken from
four of the city wells in the densely populated parts of the city
yielded on an average, 58 grains each of solid matter.

The supply also of well water has been gradually diminishing in this
city for the last several years. For example, at the Chemical Works
on the North River, at 33d street, and at an extensive distillery on
the East River, some distance above the Alms House, water cannot be
procured in sufficient quantities on their premises, where, but a few
years past, it was obtained in great abundance. At the Gas Works on
the Collect grounds, where they have a well 20 feet in depth, by 18
feet in diameter, which, until 1834, furnished water freely, enabling
the engine to raise 20,000 gallons in ten hours, in 1835 it required
14 to 16 hours to raise the same quantity, and in order to continue
the supply, it was found necessary to return the water to the well,
after using it for condensing the gas. The Corporation well, also,
in 13th street, furnished, for several years, about 120,000 gallons
of water daily, but in 1835, this quantity was reduced down to from
five to ten thousand. In order to remedy this evil, a well was sunk at
Jefferson Market, which in a short time deprived most of the wells in
that vicinity, of water; thus drying up one source of supply, in order
to increase that of another. There is, therefore, every probability
that had not water been introduced into the city of New-York from
abroad, the supply from the wells would, in a few years, have been
insufficient for the economical, domestic and manufacturing purposes of
the inhabitants. It is fearful to contemplate the amount of decomposing
organic matter contained in the wells in the vicinity of Trinity, St.
Paul’s, and St. John’s burying grounds, which for more than a century
furnished the only water used by those residing in their neighborhood.
No one can doubt that the use of such water, as well as that from the
wells on the Collect, and over the greater portion of the city below
Canal-street, must have proved extremely detrimental to the health of
the citizens, and especially to children, and infants. We believe,
therefore that the introduction of the Croton water, will increase the
average duration of human life in the city of New-York, from 8 to 12
per cent. From 1815 to 1836, it ranged from 30.08 to 22.05, (in 1836),
but the mean duration of life for the last 20 years is about 25 years;
and the ratio of mortality, according to population, about as 1 to 35.
From the manner, however, in which the inspector’s reports have been
made, from the imperfection of the law, no great confidence can be
placed in the returns,--those carried out of the city for burial, not
having been included.

From a “Report on the subject of introducing pure and wholesome water
into the city of Boston, by L. Baldwin, Esq., Civil Engineer,” it
appears that the whole number of wells in that city in 1835, was 2,767.
The water from 2,085 of these wells was drinkable, though brackish
and hard, and 682 of them were bad and unfit for use. There were only
seven of the city wells which yielded soft water occasionally and for
washing, and from 33 of them the water was obtained by deep boring.
“Within a few years,” says the Report, “it has become common in Boston,
and the vicinity, to bore for water, and to make what are called
Artesian wells. But no certain or valuable result has grown out of
these endeavors. There are 33 bored wells, only two of which are stated
as furnishing soft water. The same remarks will apply to the public
wells of this city, the most of which produce nothing but hard and
brackish water, and none of which is sufficiently soft to authorize its
use in washing clothes,” &c.

LAKE WATER is a collection of rain, spring and river water, usually
more or less contaminated with putrefying organic matter. It is
generally _soft_, and when filtered, is as good and wholesome as any
other description of waters. Though lake water cannot be characterized
as having any invariable qualities; yet most of the Lakes of the United
States, especially our great ones, afford a very pure water. In many
of our smaller lakes the water is more or less stagnant, and of course
very unhealthy.

_Marsh Water._ This is analogous to lake water, except that it is
altogether stagnant and is more loaded with putrescent matter.
The sulphates in sea and other waters are decomposed by putrefying
vegetable matter, with the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen; hence
the intolerable stench from marshy and swampy grounds liable to
occasional inundations from the sea. Marsh water cannot be drunk with
safety either by man or beast.


_Tests of the usual impurities in Common Water._

The following are the tests by which the presence of the ordinary
constituents or impurities of common waters may be ascertained.

1. EBULLITION.--By boiling, air and carbonic acid gas are expelled,
while carbonate of lime, (which has been held in solution by the
carbonic acid) is deposited. The latter constitutes the crust which
lines tea-kettles and boilers.

2. PROTOSULPHATE OF IRON. If a crystal of this salt be introduced into
a phial filled with the water to be examined, and the phial be well
corked, a yellowish-brown precipitate (sesquioxide of iron) will be
deposited in a few days, if oxygen gas be contained in the water.

3. LITMUS. Infusion of litmus or syrup of violets is reddened by a free
acid.

4. LIME WATER. This is a test for carbonic acid, with which it causes a
white precipitate (carbonate of lime) if employed before the water is
boiled.

5. CHLORIDE OF BARIUM. A solution of this salt usually yields, with
well water, a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. This
indicates the presence of sulphuric acid (which, in common water, is
combined with lime).

6. OXALATE OF AMMONIA. If this salt yield a white precipitate, it
indicates the presence of lime, (carbonate and sulphate.)

7. NITRATE OF SILVER. If this occasion a precipitate insoluble in
nitric acid, the presence of chlorine may be inferred.

8. PHOSPHATE OF SODA. If the lime contained in common water be removed
by ebullition and oxalic acid, and to the strained and transparent
water, ammonia and phosphate of soda be added, any magnesia present
will, in the course of a few hours, be precipitated in the form of the
white ammoniacal phosphate of magnesia.

9. TINCTURE OF GALLS. This is used as a test for Iron, with solutions
of which it forms an inky liquor, (tannate and gallate of iron).
If the test produce this effect on the water before, but not after
boiling, the iron is in the state of carbonate; if after, as well
as before, in that of sulphate. Tea may be substituted for galls,
to which its effects and indications are similar. _Ferro cyanide of
potassium_ yields, with solutions of the sesqui-salts of iron, a blue
precipitate, and with the proto-salts a white precipitate, which
becomes blue by exposure to the air.

10. HYDROSULPHURIC ACID. (_Sulphuretted Hydrogen._) This yields a
dark (brown or black) precipitate, (a metallic sulphuret) with water
containing iron or lead in solution.

11. EVAPORATION AND IGNITION. If the water be evaporated to dryness,
and ignited in a glass tube, the presence of organic matter may be
inferred by the odor and smoke evolved, as well as by the charring.
Another mode of detecting organic matter is by adding nitrate (or
acetate) of lead to the inspected water, and collecting and igniting
the precipitate; when globules of metallic lead are obtained if organic
matter be present. The putrefaction of water is another proof of the
presence of this matter. Nitrate of silver is the best test for the
presence of chloride of soda or common salt. By adding a small quantity
of this to the common well water of New-York, a copious, white,
flocculent precipitate is immediately formed, which is the chloride of
soda. The same test, however, applied to the Croton water, produces no
discoloration whatever.

_Purification of Common water._ By _filtration_, water may be deprived
of living beings and of all suspended impurities; but substances
held in solution, cannot thus be separated. _Ebullition_ destroys
the vitality of both animals and vegetables; expels air, or carbonic
acid, and causes the precipitation of carbonate of lime, but the
water should be afterwards subjected to the process of _filtration_.
_Distillation_, when properly conducted is the most effectual method
of purifying water. But distilled water is in general contaminated by
traces of organic matter. The addition of chemical agents is another
mode which has been proposed and practised, for freeing water from
some of its impurities. _Alum_ is often used by the common people to
cleanse muddy water, and ashes and pearl-ash to destroy its hardness.
When alum is used, two or three grains are sufficient for a quart of
water. The alum decomposes the carbonate of lime; sulphate of lime is
formed in solution, and the alumina precipitates in flocks, carrying
with it mechanical impurities. This agent, however, adds nothing to
the chemical purity of the water, but by converting the carbonate into
sulphate of lime augments its hardness. _Caustic alkalies_ added to
lime saturate the excess of carbonic acid, and throw down the carbonate
of lime, having an alkaline carbonate in solution. Professor Clark
of Aberdeen,[12] (Scotland) has recently patented a plan for the
purification of water, by the addition of lime. The lime unites with
the excess of carbonic acid in the water, and forms carbonate of lime
(chalk) which precipitates, along with the carbonate of lime held
previously in solution in the water. The effect of this process is
similar to that of ebullition,--as the hardness of water is, however,
owing to the sulphate and not the carbonate of lime,[13] this plan can
have little or no influence in rendering hard water soft. Alkaline
carbonates soften water, decompose all the earthy salts (calcareous and
magnesian carbonates, sulphates, and chlorides) and precipitate the
earthy matters. They leave, however, in solution, an alkaline salt, but
which does not communicate to water the property of hardness.

SEA-WATER includes the waters of the ocean and of those lakes, called
island seas, which possess a similar composition. The Dead Sea,
however, varies so much from ordinary sea-water, as to rank amongst
mineral waters.

The quantity of solid matter varies considerably in the waters of
different seas, as the following statement proves--

  _10,000 parts of water of_                    _Solid constituents._
  _the Mediterranean Sea_, contain                     410 grs.
  English Channel,                                     380 „
                    { At the Island of Fohe,           345 „
  German Ocean      { At the Island of Norderney,      342 „
                    { In the Frith of Forth,           312 „
                    { At Ritzebuttle,                  312 „
                    At Apemalle, in Sleswick,          216 „
                    At Kiel, in Holstein,              200 „
  Baltic Sea        At Doberan, in Mecklenbergh,       168 „
                    At Travemunæ,                      167 „
                    At Zoppot, in Mecklenbergh,         76 „
                    At Carshamm,                        66 „

The average quantity of saline matter in sea-water is 3½ per cent.,
and its specific gravity about 1.0274. The composition of sea-water
differs also in different localities. Iodine has been found in the
Mediterranean sea.

_Action of Water on Lead._ When lead is exposed to atmospheric air,
the oxygen of the air combining with it, forms an oxide, while, at
the same time the carbonic acid of the air, unites with it forming a
thin white crust, which is the _carbonate of lead_. This formation is
accelerated by moisture, and by the presence of an unusual quantity of
carbonic acid in the atmosphere. The same process goes on with still
greater rapidity in pure running water. But if water be deprived of
all its gases by ebullition, and excluded from contact with the air,
the lead will not be acted upon If water, however, be exposed to the
air, although all the gases have been expelled, a white powder will
soon form around the lead, till, in the course of a few days, there is
formed a large quantity of white, pearly scales, which partly float
in the water, but are chiefly deposited on the bottom of the vessel.
In 12 ounces of distilled water, contained in a shallow glass basin,
loosely covered to exclude the dust, twelve brightly polished lead
rods weighing 340 grains, will lose 2½ grains in 8 days, and the lead
will show evident marks of corrosion; and this action will go on as
long as the water is exposed to the air. While these changes are going
on, a small quantity of lead will be dissolved, as may be shown by
carefully filtering the water acidulating with a drop or two of nitric
acid, and evaporating to dryness. Sulphuretted hydrogen is also a good
test, occasioning, where lead is present, first a brown color, and
subsequently a black precipitate. Christison has proved that the lead
which is dissolved, is in the form of the carbonate, and hydrate of the
oxide, or, oxide of lead, carbonic acid and water.

The fact is then sufficiently established, that distilled water has
the property of dissolving lead--Does the same hold true in relation
to waters in ordinary use? In the year 1809, it was first announced by
_Guyton Morveau_, that the salts which are held in solution by some
natural waters, destroy their property of acting on lead, and that of
these modifying circumstances none are more remarkable in their action
than the neutral salts. Dr. Christison has pursued this investigation
with great success, and has proved that this preservative power
exists in the case of sulphates, muriates, carbonates, hydriodates,
phosphates, nitrates, acetates, tartrates, arseniates, &c. These
salts, however, do not possess an equally protective influence, the
carbonates and sulphates being most, the chlorides the least energetic
of those saline substances commonly met with in waters. As a general
rule, it appears that those whose acid forms with the lead a soluble
salt of lead, are the least energetic; while those whose acid forms an
insoluble salt of lead, are most energetic. The variable quantity of
salts necessary to prevent the action of water on lead, may be seen
from the following results obtained by actual experiment.

  Of acetate of soda a 100th part of the water is a preservative.
  Of arseniate of soda 12,000th    „         „            „
  Of phosphate of soda 30,000th    „         „            „
  Of hydriodate of potash 30,000th „         „            „
  Of muriate of soda 2,000th       „         „            „
  Of sulphate of lime 4,000th      „         „            „
  Of nitrate of potash 100th       „         „            „

The sulphates of soda, magnesia, lime, and the triple sulphate of
alumina and potash, possess about the same preservative power; which
appears to depend on the acid, not on the base of the salt. The general
results of Dr. Christison’s investigations, appear to be, that neutral
salts in various, and for the most part minute, proportions, retard or
prevent the corrosive action of water on lead--allowing the carbonate
to deposit itself slowly, and to adhere with such firmness to the
lead as not to be afterwards removed by moderate agitation,--adding
subsequently to this crust other insoluble salts of lead, the acids
of which are derived from the neutral salts in solution,--and thus at
length forming a permanent and impermeable screen in the form of a
film over its surface, through which the action of the water cannot
any longer be carried on. These films are composed of the carbonate of
lead, with a little of the muriate, sulphate, arseniate, or phosphate
of lead, according to the nature of the acid in the alkaline salt,
which is dissolved in the water. The following general conclusions may
therefore be considered as sufficiently established.

1. Lead pipes ought not to be used for the purpose of conducting
water, at least where the distance is considerable, without a careful
examination of the water to be transmitted.

2. The risk of a dangerous impregnation with lead is greatest in the
instance of the purest waters.

3. Water, which tarnishes polished lead when left at rest upon it in
a glass vessel for a few hours, cannot safely be transmitted through
lead-pipes without certain precautions; and conversely, it is probable,
that if lead remain untarnished, or nearly so, for 24 hours in a glass
of water, the water may be safely conducted through lead-pipes.

4. Water which contains less than about an 8000th of salts in solution,
can not be safely conducted in lead pipes without certain precautions.

5. Even this proportion will prove insufficient to prevent corrosion,
unless a considerable part of the saline matter consists of carbonates
and sulphates, especially the former.

6. So large a proportion as a 4000th part, probably even a considerably
larger proportion, will be insufficient, if the salts in solution be in
a great measure muriates.

7. In all cases careful examination should be made of the water
after it has been running a few days through the pipes; for it is
not improbable that other circumstances, besides those hitherto
ascertained, may regulate the preventive influence of the neutral salts.

8. Where the water is of sufficient purity to act on lead, a remedy
may be found, either, in leaving the pipes full of water and at rest
for three or four months, or by solution of phosphate of soda; in the
proportion of about a 25,600th part.[14]

Dr. Kane, however, seems to differ from Dr. Christison in opinion on
this subject; for after having mentioned the crust which gradually
forms on the interior of the cistern, and assists in protecting it from
the oxidizing action of the air, he remarks, “no danger is therefore
to be apprehended from the supply of water to a city being conveyed
through leaden pipes, and preserved in leaden cisterns; for _all water
of mineral origin dissolves, in filtering through the layers of rocks
in its passage to the surface_, a sufficiency of saline matters to
serve for its protection.”

Now, to apply these results to the water of the Croton; as this holds
in solution only about one 18,000th part of salts, it must, according
to Christison, exert a corroding influence on the lead-pipes. Dr.
Dana, of Lowell, has lately investigated this subject and detected
lead in the water which had passed through the leaden-pipes for the
distribution of water in the city of Lowell. The first examination was
made from a sample of water taken from the source or spring-head before
it had entered the leaden pipes, when the specific gravity was found to
be 1,000,18. The pint, on evaporation to dryness, yielded 2.37 grains
of solid matter. The solid contents of an imperial pint were found to
be,

                                   _Grains._
  Chloride of Sodium,                1.54
  Chloride of Magnesia,              0.71
  Sulphate of Lime,                  0.128
                                    ------
  A trace of Carbonic acid,
  Grains,                            2.378
  Excess in the course of analysis    .008

The second examination was made of water taken from the leaden pipes
when the specific gravity was found to be 1.000.42. Upon a pint of
this water being evaporated to dryness it yielded two grains of solid
matter, (viz.)

  Carbonate of lead            164  Grains,
  Organic matter and salts     038    „
                               ---
                               202    „
  Excess in analysis,          002    „

It therefore has been calculated that every gallon of the water used
after passing through the leaden pipes, contains 1.312 grains of the
carbonate of lead. Such water, although it would not speedily destroy
life, would undoubtedly be attended with injurious consequences, should
its use be habitually continued.

On the other hand, Dr. Hare of Philadelphia, in reply to a letter
requesting his opinion as to the action of the Schuylkill water[15] on
lead pipes, states that after using the Schuylkill water for 25 years
in his laboratory, he has never perceived the slightest indication of
the presence of lead; and that if there had been any in the water, the
re-agents which he has been accustomed to use must have rendered the
impurity evident. If it be true that the Schuylkill water does not act
upon the lead pipes, it would follow as a matter of course, if the
doctrines above laid down be correct, that the Croton, which contains
very nearly the same quantity of saline ingredients, would also exert
no influence upon this metal. In cases, however, where injurious
consequences have resulted from the agency of lead, the pipes through
which the water was conducted, were of considerable length; suppose for
example that the pipes are 4000 feet long, and three fourths of an inch
in diameter, each portion of water will pass successively over no less
than 784 square feet of lead before being discharged; and it would not
therefore be at all remarkable, if the water were found contaminated
with the lead. In this city, however, the pipes are rarely more than 50
feet in length, generally not more than 25, and therefore cannot exert
so deleterious an influence as in those of greater extent. Dr. Chilton,
recently inspected the Croton water drawn from the leaden pipes, by
which it is introduced into the house of Mr. G. D. Coggeshall. No 421
Pearl-street in this city, and found the water evidently affected
by the lead. He has also obtained similar results in several other
instances. If the precaution be used, of not employing the water first
drawn from the pipes for dietetic and culinary purposes, no injurious
consequences would probably attend the use of water conveyed in this
metal, but as this is not likely to be attended to generally, it is
expedient to employ other measures to guard against its deleterious
effects.

For this purpose, various means have been suggested, such as the
substitution of block-tin and other metals not acted upon by water;
but the most efficient, scientific, and useful, as well as the most
economical, of all the plans hitherto proposed, is that introduced by
Thomas Ewbank, Esq., of coating the lead-pipes with tin both inside and
out. The process, which has been patented, consists simply in drawing
an ordinary lead-pipe through a bath of melted tin, coated with a layer
of melted rosin, which leaves a continuous deposit, of tin upon both
sides of the pipe, of sufficient thickness, to effectually prevent
any oxidation of the lead. These pipes have been highly recommended
by our first chemists, and other men of science, as furnishing an
effectual safeguard against the corroding effects of pure water This
highly ingenious process, strengthens the pipe, without diminishing
its elasticity, and although some small portions of the lead should
escape being coated, yet the proximity of the tin, will, from galvanic
action, probably prevent oxidization of the lead. As these pipes are
furnished at about eight cents per pound, the usual price of ordinary
lead-pipe, there can be no doubt that they will be generally adopted by
our citizens,--as they have been, already, by the Corporation, in the
conveyance of the Croton water, into the public buildings.

_Use of Water as Aliment._ Water is the beverage provided by nature for
all animated beings. It is a vital stimulus, or one of the external
conditions essential for the manifestations of life. Consequently,
without it, life, at least in the higher order of animals, could not be
maintained.

Considered in a dietetical point of view, water serves three important
purposes in the animal economy; namely, it repairs the loss of the
aqueous part of the blood, caused by the action of the secreting and
exhaling organs; secondly, it is a solvent of various alimentary
substances, and therefore assists the stomach in the act of digestion,
though, if taken in very large quantities, it may have an opposite
effect, by diluting the gastric juice; thirdly, it is a nutritive
agent, that is, it assists in the formation of the solid parts of the
body.

_As a diluent_, water is indispensable to the preservation of health.
The body being composed of solids and fluids, there must be maintained
a certain relative proportion of these, to constitute that state of
system called health. In a full grown adult, the solid matter of the
body, by which we mean all that substantial part of the frame which
is not in constant motion in the vessels, amounts to only about one
fifth of the weight of the body--Chaussier says, one ninth of the total
weight, the difference, perhaps, being owing to the fact that there is
a quantity of fluid combined with the solids in so intimate a manner,
as almost to constitute a part of their substance. The diminution
of the fluid part of the body, is the cause of an uneasy sensation,
indicating the necessity of repairing the waste of fluids, which we
familiarly call _thirst_. This is a sensation connected with some
natural state of the corporeal functions, and altogether independent of
the occasional excitement of foreign bodies, although it may be induced
by these. There is a demand for a certain supply of liquid which is
the result of repletion of the stomach, and the cause of our drinking
at our ordinary meals, but this is different from true or spontaneous
thirst. True thirst occurs, when we have been some time without taking
drink, (unless the food has consisted mainly of fruits and other
succulent vegetables; under which circumstances, a person may go for
months without any desire for drink); when the system has been greatly
excited, whether by corporeal or mental causes; when acid substances,
particularly saline bodies, have been taken into the stomach; and, in
short, in every condition of the system, which favors the inordinate
excretion of fluids. The immediate cause of thirst appears to be a dry
state of the mouth and fauces; owing to the mucus which covers these
parts becoming thick and viscid, though physiologists are not agreed
on this point. This may arise from the absorption of the fluid parts
of the saliva; for it appears to be necessary for the due performance
of the functions of the palate and the tongue, that the mucus should
possess a certain degree of liquidity. The sensation of thirst is
generally indicative of the necessity of a supply of fluid to the
system generally; for although thirst may be momentarily assuaged by
wetting the mouth, or holding a thin fluid in it--yet it can only be
effectually relieved by conveying into the stomach a quantity of fluid
sufficient to supply the deficiency. This supply is termed _dilution_,
from the fact that the fluid is absorbed and carried into the blood,
which it renders thin, and the fluids themselves are called _diluents_.

Thirst, however, does not always indicate a deficiency of fluids in the
circulating mass, and the tongue and fauces are occasionally dry and
harsh whilst the sensation of thirst is absent. Some individuals never
experience the sensation of thirst. Mr. Alcott, who lives entirely
on succulent vegetables, states that he has drunk no fluids for more
than a year past, and that he never experiences the sensation of
thirst--a similar case is mentioned by Sauvages, of an individual who
never thirsted, and passed whole months of the hottest weather without
drinking. It is well known that many warm-blooded animals such as mice,
quails, parrots, rabbits, &c., drink but very little; which is supposed
to be owing to the circumstance that they have very large salivary
glands, and a larger pancreas in proportion to the size of their
bodies. In general, as we have already remarked, thirst is indicative
of diminished fluidity of the blood and when it is not assuaged by
taking liquids into the stomach, or by moistening the mouth with them,
or by applying them to the surface, the torment which it induces
amounts occasionally almost to phrenzy, and is borne with less patience
and greater difficulty than hunger; sometimes inflammation of the mouth
and throat and intense fever supervene. Various circumstances connected
with the ordinary condition of the body influence the sensation of
thirst. Thus it is greater in infancy and childhood than in adult age,
and less in old age; it is greater in women than in men; it is varied
by constitution and temperament; by climate; season; the nature of
the diet; exercise; passions of mind, and even by imagination. As an
_aliment_, water is of prime necessity to all organized beings. As a
solvent, it reduces to a fluid mass all the principles necessary for
the growth of animal and vegetable bodies; which must be in a fluid
form, before they can be taken up by the fine lacteal and other
absorbent vessels, and thus carried to every part of the living tissue.
How important then, that this universal solvent should be pure,--that
it should be free from those foreign ingredients, whether of animal,
vegetable or mineral origin, which, if introduced into the system, tend
to disturb the functions of the various organs, and often to occasion
serious derangement and disease. But besides its important office as
a _menstruum_, water is perhaps the most important _nutrient_, of
all those which sustain the existence of organized bodies. A great
proportion of that which is drunk, is speedily absorbed by the veins,
and carried into the circulation, some time before the product of the
digested food is introduced by the way of the laeteals. There are
numerous cases on record, where persons have lived, for a considerable
length of time, on water alone. In the “Transactions of the Albany
Institute,” for 1830, Dr. M’Naughten relates the case of a man who was
sustained on water alone, for 53 days. “For the first six weeks he
walked out every day, and sometimes spent a great part of the day in
the woods. His walk was steady and firm, and his friends even remarked
that his step had an unusual elasticity; he shaved himself until about
a week before his death, and was able to sit up in bed till the last
day.”

To the evils which result from the use of impure water, we have
already alluded, although it would require far more space than has
been assigned to us in this Appendix, to do them adequate justice.
There can be no doubt, that the chief cause of the excess of mortality
in cities, over that of the country, is to be found in the impure
water, with which the former are so generally supplied, and we may
confidently predict, that in consequence mainly of the introduction
of the Croton River into the City of New-York, no city in the world
of equal size, will surpass it in salubrity. To the operation of
the same cause, we may doubtless look with confidence for a decided
improvement in personal comeliness and beauty. “It is evident,” says
Dr Jackson, “that the health of a whole community may be so affected
by impurities in water drank by them, as to give a peculiar morbid
expression to their countenances which causes the observant eye of a
traveller to remark it, while he in vain endeavours to account for the
phenomenon. Who has not remarked the expression common in some of our
cities, as in New-York and Boston, which is called a “care worn and
anxious expression.” This expression I will venture to assert, is not
so much the result of “too much care,” as it is of abdominal disease,
produced by the habitual and continued use of impure and unwholesome
water, which has fixed upon us this morbid stamp. I do not know that
the people of the cities in question, are subject to more care than
those in other districts, but I do know that they use every day, in
many forms, a variety of noxous ingredients, which they pump up from
their wells, dissolved in the water, and which enters into every
form of food and drink they use in their houses.” Mrs. Hale, also,
in her excellent Manual “The Good Housekeeper,” remarks, that “hard
water always leaves a mineral matter on the skin, when we use it in
washing, which renders the hands and face rough and liable to chap.
Does not this water, if we drink it, likewise corrode and injure the
fine membranes of the stomach? The Boston people, who constantly use
hard water for all purposes of cookery and drink, certainly have bad
complexions, sallow, dry, and _hard_ looking; and complaints of the
stomach or dyspepsia are very common among them.[16] A Salem gentleman
declared, that when his daughters, who frequently visited at Boston,
passed two or three weeks at a time there, he could see a very material
change in their complexions. At Salem there is plenty of soft water,
and the ladies of that ancient town are famed for their beauty, which
is chiefly owing (its superiority I mean) to a peculiarly fair,
delicate tincture of skin contrasted with the half petrified appearance
of those who are obliged to drink _hard water_ always, and often to
wash in it.” Such authority on this point we presume will not be
disputed.

Health, however, is no less promoted by the internal, than by the
external use of water; and it is to be hoped, that but a short period
will elapse, before free baths will be provided at the public expense,
for the use of the poor, as well as the public generally. Daily
ablution should be regarded as necessary as daily food or sleep.

The advantages which soft water possesses over hard, in the thousand
economical purposes of life, are too obvious to need particular
remark. The lime contained in well water, renders it inapplicable
to the purposes of brewing, tanning, washing, bleaching, and many
other processes in the arts and domestic economy; and we believe the
calculation would not be found extravagant, if we should say that by
the use of the Croton water 100,000 dollars annually will be saved to
the inhabitants of New-York, in the articles of soap and soda alone.
When to this, we add the increased comfort and health of the citizens,
from its free external and internal use,--the superior cleanliness
of the streets, by the washing away of all stagnant matters in the
sinks and gutters, and the consequent purity of the atmosphere,--the
diminution of danger from fires, and the consequent reduction of rates
of insurance, with other important advantages too numerous to detail,
we shall not consider its introduction purchased at too dear a rate,
even were the expenses attending it increased to double the actual
amount.

We need not attempt to specify in detail the benefits which are likely
to accrue to the city of New-York from the introduction of an abundance
of pure water. Its value is not to be estimated by dollars and
cents; though it might easily be shown, that it already saves to the
citizens a sum far exceeding the annual interest on its cost. We have
already referred to its superiority as a solvent of vegetable matter,
over the hard well water, formerly used. Since then, we have made a
calculation, by which we are satisfied that in the single items of tea
and coffee, it will save to the inhabitants of this city annually,
not far from 90,000 dollars. To this may be added the improvement
of the public health, and the consequent saving in medicine, and
physicians’ fees, a sum probably exceeding that above specified; the
increase of the working days, and the extension of the average period
of working ability among the laboring classes; and lastly, the moral
and intellectual advancement of the entire population, attendant upon
the improvement of their physical condition; each of which is not an
unimportant item in the aggregate of public prosperity and happiness.

Such are some of the facts connected with this important fluid--water.
So common and abundant is it in nature, that we are apt to overlook its
value; but we need only be deprived of it for a season, when we shall
set a due estimate upon its importance. Pure and sparkling to the eye,
bland and refreshing to the taste, whether it bubbles up from mother
earth, gurgles in rills, flows along in streams and rivers, or spreads
out in lakes and oceans, it every where proves a blessing,--and ought
to be universally regarded as one of the most inestimable gifts of
Providence to man. As it is the only fluid capable of quenching thirst,
so it is the only one compatible with the prolonged duration of animal
life--we need not add, that as ALCOHOL, under all its combinations,
fermented and distilled, is a deadly poison, fatal to organized beings,
whether they belong to the vegetable or animal kingdom, WATER can in
no case be improved by combining it with this deleterious fluid. It
was formerly common in this city, and still is so in many places where
the well-water is brackish, to modify its taste by the addition of a
quantity of brandy, or some other form of ardent spirit, with a view,
not only of rendering it more agreeable to the palate, but also of
correcting the deleterious properties, occasioned by the salts held by
it in solution. But in all such instances, the spirit which is added
proves far more injurious than the small quantity of vegetable and
mineral matters which it is designed to correct. To the latter, the
system becomes in a manner habituated, so that even when pure soft
water can be had, the former is often preferred, as is now the case
with many individuals, who prefer our brackish well water to that of
the Croton. But where ardent spirit is added, an artificial appetite
for stimulants is soon created,--there is a constantly increasing
demand for a repetition as well as increase of the dose, derangement of
the digestive organs succeeds, and in a large majority of instances,
the health is irremediably impaired. But fortunately, no arguments are
needed in this place to convince the citizens of New-York that pure
Croton water needs no corrective,--and that it is the sworn enemy of
_fire_, whether in the shape of alcoholic poison, or that of the more
simple element--

  “Αριστον μεν υδωρ”--PINDAR.


  PRINTED BY WILLIAM OSBORN,
  88 William-street.




FOOTNOTES


[1] It is proper to remark that, the pier at each extremity, of the
range of arches of eighty feet span, has an extra thickness, making it
a pier of equilibrium; this is also the case with the one in the centre
of that range of arches, so that on each shore and in the centre of the
river this additional security has been given.

[2] This report was from the pen of Samuel Stevens, Esq.

[3] This Act was drawn up by Myndert Van Schaick, Esq., and its
character and suitableness to obviate former difficulties were approved
of by the Common Council, and the situation of Mr. Van Schaick, as
member of the Senate, no doubt promoted its success.

[4] This Act was prepared by Myndert Van Schaick, Esq., from materials
which he had previously collected for the purpose, and it passed into a
Law, and is the one under which, as its main foundation, the work has
been constructed.

[5] For some general remarks on Water, its economical and dietetical
uses, an analysis of the Croton and the comparative purity of that
supplied to different cities, the action of water on lead, &c., see
Appendix, which has been kindly furnished by Charles A. Lee, M. D., of
New-York.

[6] The Aqueduct is calculated to convey 60,000,000 gallons in
twenty-four hours.

[7] This includes, besides the actual cost of constructing the work,
the accumulation of interest on loans.

[8] The air in ice and snow water contains 34.8 per cent. of oxygen,
while that in rain water contains but 32 per cent.

[9] Report from the Select Committee of the House of Lords, appointed
to inquire into the supply of water to the Metropolis, p. 91, 1840.
Analysis by R. Phillips, Esq.

[10] Analysis, by Dr. J. R. Chilton, of New-York.

[11] The bad effects of hard water on the animal system, are likewise
manifested in horses. “Hard water drawn fresh from the well,” says Mr.
Youatt, “will assuredly make the coat of a horse unaccustomed to it
stare, and it will not unfrequently gripe, and otherwise injure him.
Instinct, or experience, has made even the horse himself conscious of
this; for he will never drink hard water, if he has access to soft;
he will leave the most transparent water of the well, for the river,
although the water may be turbid, and even for the muddiest pool. Some
trainers have so much fear of hard or strange water, that they carry
with them to the different courses the water that the animal has been
accustomed to drink and what they know agrees with it.”

[12] Repository of Patent Inventions, for October, 1841.

[13] It is now well ascertained, that carbonate of lime has only a
slight action on soap, and cannot in the proportions in which it exists
in potable waters decompose it, by giving rise to the formation of a
clotty precipitate, as we observe with sulphate and nitrate of lime,
and chloride of calcium--and this is probably owing to the excess of
carbonic acid which prevents the re-action of the calcareous carbonate
on the oleate and stearate of soda of the soap.

[14] Where water contains a large quantity of carbonic acid, there
are some facts which appear to prove, that it may act on lead, to an
injurious extent, though there may be present a large amount of neutral
salts.

[15] Containing 4.05 grains of solid matter to the gallon, or about one
18,000 part.

[16] “It has been computed that the Boston people have drank sufficient
_lime_, were it all collected, to build the Bunker Hill Monument as
high as it was ever designed to be carried.”




Transcriber’s Notes


Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a
predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they
were not changed. This includes misspellings of several Roman names,
both proper and common.

Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation
marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left
unbalanced.

The appearances and hierarchy of headings in the original book were
inconsistent. Those inconsistencies have been retained here. In
versions of this eBook that support hyperlinks, references in the Table
of Contents link to the corresponding headings.

Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs and
outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support hyperlinks,
the page references in the List of Plates link to the corresponding
illustrations.

Footnotes, originally at the bottoms of pages, have been renumbered and
moved to the end of the text.

Plate X, page 96: In this eBook, the caption shown for this Plate
includes only the headings in the plaque illustrated in the original
book. The names of individuals listed under those headings are not
included here.

Page 145: The numbers “1,000,18” and “1.000.42” were printed that way.
In the first one, the commas almost certainly should be periods, if the
notation in the second one is what the author intended.



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